Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/musicaltheoryOOcurw SEVENTH EDITION. Musical Theory. JOHN CURWEN. Book I. COMMON SCALE AND TIME. „ II. MINOR MODE AND TRANSITION. ,,ni. MUSICAL FORM. „ IV. EXPRESSION. „ V. HARMONY AND CONSTRUCTION. v ' A ^ LONDON: J. CURWEN & SONS Ltd., 24 BERNERS STREET, W. Price Three SMlUngs and Sixpence. Also in Parts :— I, 4d. ; II, 4d. ; III, Is. 4d. ; IV, 4d. ; V, Is. PEEFACE. The trae method of teaching is not by Dogmatic Rides or by the compact Statements of Science, but by leading the pupil along the path of DisGOvei-y — from the easy to the difficult, from the simple to the complex, from the common to the uncommon, from the known to the un- known— until he is able to see for himself the scientific principles, and to frame for himself the dogmatic rules, to which the facts have led him. This is true of all studies, even of Arithmetic, of History, and of Mental Philosophy, but it is especially true of Art Studies such as Painting and Music. In all Arts we must do before we understand. Music must be taught first, and out of it must be developed the theory of music. Unde* the old system of teaching, ideas were wrapt up in a form of words at exact and logical as possible. The student was set to learn these words by heart, and then it was supposed that he necessarily understood the ideas contained in them. But when he was questioned it was found that his understanding of the matter was very hazy. The teacher forgof that these ideas had only been reached by the author himself through a long process of observation, of experiment, and of comparison. Not until then was he able to make the condensed verbal summary which to him is luminous with thought, and meaning, and life. The pupil must go through the same process in order to enjoy the same full and clear perception of the subject. For many years I resisted the importunity of friends who wished me to place in dogmatic form the principles of Musical Science. I dreaded lest Tonic Sol-fa teachers should fall back into the old dogmatic way of teaching, and plead my book of dogmas as their example and vindication. J found, however, that another danger arose— that of resting in practice and experiment and being content to live a musical life without thought or reason. It is very easy for those who take up music merely for recreation to fall into this fault. But they should reflect that it ia worse than a fault ; it is a sin against their own natures to handle this fine art of music without intelligence. It is putting their minds on a level with the instinct of the lark and the nightingale. Why were our minds given to us except to enjoy the reasons and relations of things ? Besides, a good theory helps the man of practice in every way. 1st, It makes him observe better. When we know " what ought to be " we can more easily notice "what is." 2nd, It helps him to learn better, because he sees better what he is doing ; and whither he is going. 3rd, It compels him to remember better, because each point is more vivid and f\ill of meaning. It no longer stands alone ; it has a distinct place in his mind. 4th, It enables him to enjoy better. He has a sense of power and light and beauty which the mere singing or playing " to order " can never give. I have, therefore, tried in the present series of books to present the Theory of Music in the form in which, when it has been already discovered or properly learnt by the student, it should be stored in his memory. But that it may not become a quantity of dead matter in the mind, I have connected it with a series of exercises to be wrought out by the students. And the Tonic Sol-fa College has now added Theory to JPractice in its system of certificates. At every step of pi-actical skill there is a corres- ponding step of theoretical knowledge ; and the principal honours of the College cannot be obtained without Theory as well as Skill. PBEFACE. Theory has been defined as "a way of looking at tilings," aud the Tonic notation, which we inherited from Miss Glover, has, we think, given us clearer ways of looking at things — better theories than we had before. Modern music has developed in the direction of greater clearness of key — better defined relation to the Tonic. To meet this, as General Thompson said, there was wanted a notation which should not only allow the student but compel him to look at everything from the Tonic point of view. Others with stronger vision may use that point of view more wisely and truly than we have done. But as the years have passed by, we have done our best, and this is the result. Our Tonic Sol-fa students, in going forth into the musical world, have found that their Tonic theory is the solvent of a thousand difficulties. When the truths of Music itself have been once plainly/ set before the mind, the difficulties of complex notation or antiquated nomenclature are easily conquered. Hence it is that our students have been so successful in public examinations, even when weighted in the race with the Staff notation and the old theories which have clung to it. The " Questions " at the end of Books II and V "clear the way " for such candidates. The plan of the work is as follows : — Book I. — The Common Scale and Time. — For the Elementary Theory Certificate, the Tonic Sol-faist must be able to answer questions on the following para- graphs :— 1, 2, 3, 4, ie, 5, 6, 7, 7c, 8. 3c, 9, 9c,d, 10, 10c, 11, lid, 12, 14, 16, 17. IS, 19, 19b, 20, 21, 21J, 22, 22h,c, 24, 2Ae, f,g, 'lb, 26, 26i,c, 27, 276, 28. 28i, 29, 30, .30*, 31, 316, 32, 326, 33, 336, 31, 346, 35, .%c, 36, with chart and note, 366, Z&d,e,jf,g,h, 364, 37, 376, 38, 386. All the rest of the book, especially the small type notes in square brackets, is for those who are studying the Staff Notation. Price 4d. Book H. — The Minor Mode & Transition. — For the Intermediate Theory Certificate, The Tonic Sol-faists must be able to answer questions on the following para- graphs :— 40, 406,c, 41, 416, 42, 426,c,d, 43, 436,c, 44, 446,c,ilse meas. 27 33 Six-pulse me-asure 29 Tripletted 4 pulse 34 Nine-pulse meas. 31 Tripletted 3 pulse 82 Duple, triple Simple, compound Three-four Six-eight Beating time 33 35 Rate of movement 33 Pace in words 36 Accents within pise 33 Staccato The hold, or pause Ti'iplet sign Repet. of words 36 Repet. of music Appogiatura Acciacatura Taa-taing Time laaing 37 Ii-regular Accents 35 Tie, slur, group .38 Rhythm 36 39 Effects of rhythm 36 Effects of TAA-efe Effects of tafa-AI 37 Extended rhythms 38 40 Ray & Lah modes 39 Causes of predom. R, L, & Doh modes Dorian and jEolian 41 Old minor tunes 40 42 The modern minor 41 Power of the fifth Modal relation Par. Paor. Histor. specimens 42 43 The sharp 7th (se) 42 Historical changes Leading tone (se) 44 The augment. 2nd 44 The sharp 6th (ba) 44 Melodic submedia. Distinct, of modes 45 45 Scale, key, mode 45 Signa — min. mode 46 Forms of min. .scale Tone,diaton.,mode 47 46 Eff.in modern min. 48 Of d m t r 1 f s se 47 Modulation 49 Plan of teaching 52 Eff. of modulation Word "Modulat." Memorizing keys Memor. signatm-es Mod. in Staff nota. 48 Transition 53 Indefinite naming Cad. , extend. , pass. 49 First sharp key 53 Bridge-note Harmony & trans. 54 Proper & improper Transmutation-tn. Key of one sharp First sharp key Signatiu-e 1st sharp 50 Fii-st flat key 55 Tran.witht dis.tns. Signature — 1st fiat 56 Approach dis. tone Mod.toDom.Sdom. 51 Departing&retum. 56 52 Lay and Rah 57 Lapsed transition 53 Trans. & modulat. 57 54 Effects of trans. 57 Act of transmuta Completed trans. 55 Trans, modulation 58 56 Two removes 58 Oscillation 60 Signa. — 2 removes 57 Three removes 61 Kommatic differ. 62 Ton. min., ton. maj. Signa. — 3 removes 58 Four removes 62 Signa. — 4 removes 63 59 Difficult removes 63 60 Enharmo. changes 63 Chromatic 64 Accidental 61 Relation of keys 64 Musical terms 65 Exam, questions 67 CONTKNTS OF BOOK T. Pab. Page. Word "Position" 291 185 Cadence on Dominant „ 186 Approach to Tonic and Domi- nant Cadence ,, 187 Weak-pulse Cadences 292 188 Consecutive Octaves „ Doubling of Parts „ 189 ni-approached Octaves 293 190 Consecutive Fifths „ Organ Stops Unequal Fifths 294 191 Ill-approached Fifths „ Hidden Conseeutives „ Dl-approaehed Fourths ,, Broken Chords and Conseeutives ,, Accents and Conseeutives , , 192 False Relation „ 193 Imperfect Tonic Cadences 295 Perfect and Imperfect ,, 194 Plagal Cadences 296 195 Imperfect Dominant Cadences „ 196 Subdominant Cadences 297 197 Putting-together of Chords „ What to do „ What to avoid 298 198 Minor Common Chords 299 199 Unsonorousness of Minor Chords ,, 200 Substitutional use of ,, ,, ,, 201 Substitutional Chord RAH „ 202 Seventh on Supertonic 300 Added Sixth „ 203 Fonrth on Dominant 301 Suspended Fourth and Domi- nant Eleventh „ 204 Diminished Chords 302 Eay and Rah „ 205 Diminished Chord T „ 206 Substitutional Habits of T 302 First Inversion of Dominant Seventh 302 207 Seventh on Leading-tone 303 Added Kinth or Dominant Major Ninth ,, 208 Substitutional Chord L AH „ Minor Triad or Common Chord on Sixth of Key 304 209 Bonding of Stepwise Chords ... „ 210 Exceptional Resolution of S and 'S 305 211 Chord on Mediant ,, Minor Triad or Common Chord on Third of Key 306 212 Weak Part of a Pulse „ 213 Bye-tones „ 214 Consonant Passing-tones 307 215 Secondary Chords „ 216 Exceptions „ 217 Removes of Transition 308 218 Factors of Transition 309 219 Transmutation Chord „ 220 Extent of Transition 310 221 Relations of Tran.5ition 311 222 Entry of Transition „ 223 Object of Transition 312 224 Analysis of Transition 313 Pae. Page 225 Three-part Harmony 314 226 Two-part Harmony „ Points of Strictness 315 227 Essential and Incidental 316 228 Afterstrokes „ 229 Fore-strokes „ Difference of Systems 31" Suspension, Retardation, &e. ... „ Fundamental and Essential Dis- cords „ 230 Eflfectof Incidentals 318 231 Analysis of Incidentals „ 232 Modem Minor Mode 319 233 Similarities of Two Modes „ 234 Difference of Two Modes 321 235 Minor Transition 324 236 Modulation „ 237 Transitional Modvdation 325 2.38 FuU-pulse Dissonance 325 239 Tonic Resolution 326 Dominant Seventh „ Subtonic Seventh 327 Tonic Fourth 328 Tonic Ninth 329 Subdominant Sixth 330 Tonic Sixth „ Dominant Fourth and Seventh 331 Tonic Ninth and Fourth 332 Tonic Seventh and Fourth 333 Tonic Ninth, Seventh, Fourth ... „ Dominant Sixth and Seventh ... „ 240 Dominant Resolution 334 Supertonic Seventh „ Subdominant Seventh 335 Dominant Fourth „ Dominant Ninth 336 Dominant Ninth and Fourth ... „ Dominant Ninth and Seventh ... „ Dominant Ninth, Seventh, and Fourth 337 Supertonic Fourth and Seventh „ 241 Subdominant Resolution ^8 TonicSeventh „ Subdominant Fourth 2S9 Subdominant Ninth „ Tonic Ninth and Seventh „ 242 Supertonic Resolution 340 Submediant Seventh ,, Supertonic Fourth ,, Supertonic Ninth „ Supertonic Ninth and Fourth ... 2t41 243 Sequence of Sevenths „ 244 Persisting-tones & Organ-point ^42 245 Analysis of Full-pulse Disso- nances 343 246 Chromatic Tones 344 Word " Chromatic " ,, 247 Chromatic Resolution „ Related to First Sharp Remove Sib Related to First Flat Remove ... 346 Related to Third Flat Pvemove... 348 Unrelated Chromatics 349 Examination Questions 351 Course of Exercises 365 MUSICAL THEORY. BOOK I. THE COMMON SCALE AND TIME. Theory of the Common Scale. 1. A Musical Tone is a sound produced by vibrations of the air, which touch the drum of the ear in a rapid, regular and continuous manner. lb. Sapidity. — "If a watch," says Pro- fessor Tyndall, " could be caused to tick with sufficient rapidity — say one hundred times a second — the ticks would lose their individuality and blend to a musical tone. And if the strokes of a pigeon's wings could be accomplished at the same rate, the progress of the bird through the air would be accompanied by music. In the humming bird the necessary rapidity is attained ; and when we pass on from birds to insects, where the vibrations are more rapid, we have a musical note as the ordinary accompaniment of the insects' flight. The puflfs of a locomotive at starting follow each other slowly at flist, but they soon increase so rapidly as to be almost incapable of being counted. If this increase could continue until the puffs numbered .50 or 60 a second, the ap- proach of the engine would be heralded by an organ peal of tremendous power." See also "Musical Statics," p. 3. Ic. Regularity. — In the cases of the watch, the pigeon's wings, the wings of an insect, and the puffs of a locomotive, the idea of regularity of impulse is im- plied. This is, indeed, an essential con- dition of musical tone, that the impulses should succeed each other in the same interval of time. " If," says Professor Tyndall, " I shake this tool-box, with its nails, bradawls, chisels, and files, you hear what we should call noise. If I draw a violin bow across this tuning-fork, you hear what we should call music. 'The noise affects us as an irregular succession of sbocka. We are conacious while listen- ing to it of a jolting and jarring of the auditory nerve, while the musical sound flows smoothly and without asperity or irregularity." See also " Musical Statics," p. 3. Id. Continuity. — In a musical tone the rate of vibration continues the same from the beginning to the end. But in the intonations of speech the rate of vibration changes on nearly every syllable. The syllable begins at a certain rate and be- comes increasingly rapid, and this is called a rising inflection. Thus, if one were calling out for " Charles " to come, we might do so with an inflection rising through what is called a Fifth or even an Octave. "Charles! Charles!!" Or it may be that the syllable begins with a rapid rate of vibration which becomes gradually but quickly slower, and this is called a downward inflection. Military words of command are thus given. " Halt ! " " Fire ! ! " The violin as well as the voice can distinguish between a tone and an inflection. If the finger is pressed on a string while the bow is drawn that will give a clear continuous tone ; but if the finger is moved up or down the string, while the bow is being drawn, that will give an inflection. In the singing of the Arabs and other Eastern nations there are many inflections used to com- mence or end the tones. The rarely-used musical ornament called the Portamentnj is an inflection. But as a general rule inflections should be avoided in ainging. See also "Musical Statics," p. 3, (1) THE COMMON SCALE. TONE-aUALITIES. STANDABD. 2. The Elements of a Musical Tone are Pitch, Length, Loudness and Quality. tone, he draws the bow vigorously acrow it, so as to extend its vibratione. The study of this element of Loudness is Ciilled Force or Expression. Expression is one of the greatest powers of mu-sic. See also " Musical Statics," p. 7. See lesson, "Teacher's Manual," pp. 42, 58, 192. 2e. Thin, Rich and Hard. — The quality of tones is that which makes the differ- ence between the same pitch sound as given by a trumpet, a flute, and a violin. Quality arises from the number and pro- portion of " partials " or harmonics — that is, weak sounds mingling with or forming "part" of the body of atone. If there are no partials, the tone has a somewhat hoUow, empty, thin quality, though very pure, like the sound of a flute or a wide stopped organ pipe. If the predominating^ partials are those which accord with the principal tone, a rich and full-bodied effect is produced, as in the tones of a well-bowed violin and a well-blown horn. If the higher and weaker, though numerous, dissonant partials fill the body of the tone, then a hard, rough, wiry, and often hai-sh quality is produced, as in the tones of some church beUs, of the bass reeds in a harmonium, of a tuning-fork, or of an over-blown trumpet. See " Statics," pp. 30, 34. The study of Quality is the chief object of voice cultivation. In singing, the manner in which the tones are produced makes the principal difference in quality. See " Teacher's Manual," p. 182. It is this element of quality which divides an orchestra into its three great masses — the string band, the reed band, and the wind instruments. -See lesson, " Teacher's Manual," p. 188. 26. High and Low. — The pitch of a tone arises from the number of vibrations in a second by which the tone Is produced. A tone aiused by many vitirations in a second is said to be high. One caused by few vibrations in a second is said to be low. Thus the soimd produced by a 32-foot organ pipe, giving only 16 vibra- tions in a second, is very low — almost too low to be recognised as continuous, and thesoimdsproducedby tlip s'lortest string of a harp or piano, givmg aoout 4000 vibrations in a second, are very high, almost too high for the ear to distinguish them one from the other. The sounds of human voice-s lie between these two ex- tremes. The study of this element of pitch is called Tune. Tune is the essence of music : there can be no music without it. See also " Music-al Statics," pp. 7, 8. See lesson. "Teacher's Manual," pp. 88, 40. 2c. Long and Short.— The length of a tone is perceived by means of our constant sense of time. The regular process of breathing and the beating of our hearts help to give us this consciousness of dura- tion and succession. The study of this element of Length is called Time or Rhythm. "We have pleasure in a well- played side-drum, even without pure musical tone, and when to its rhythm there is added a delicate variety of dura- tion in the musical tones accompanying it, we perceive how much of character and motion music gains from Time. See lessons, " Teacher's Manual," pp. 88, 40. 'id. Loud and Soft. — The loudness of a tone arises from the stieugth— width and violence— of its vibrations. For example, when one wishes to make the string of a violin or a violoncello produce a loud 3. Standard of Pitch. — For convenience of reference a certain tone is chosen by musicians as the Standard of Pitch. It is produced by 2.56 vibrations in a second of time. It is named after the letter C, and called the middle 0. It is in the higher part of men's voices and the lower part of women's voices. 3?>. Tuning-forks. — This standard is represented by little in.struments called Tuning-forks, which give only one sound. The tuning-fork most u^ed for vocal pur- poses vibrates just twice as many tunes in a second as this middle C. That is, it gives 512 vibrations in a second. Small forks are sometimes used which give twice as many as this — that is, 1024. These double or ttree-fold vibrationa are used partly because the instiument which gives them is smaller and handier, and partly becaxise their shriUer tones appeal more definitely to the ear. 3c. Oth'.r Standards. — The standard of 256 vibiations for the middle C, or 512 for the tuning-fork, is called the " Philoso- phical Standard." It is a little higher than Handel's tuning-fork of the year 1740, and is about the same as that which OF PITCH. TE8T8 OF PITCH. OCTAVES AND UNI80K8. prevailed when Handel wrote his oratorios . The desii-e of pianoforte makers and orch- estral players to make their instruments brilliant has raised the "Concert pitch," witliiu the last centiu'y, till that of the Italian opera in tiondon in the year 1849 reached 54(5. This is a Little Step or Semitone above the Philosophical Pitch and more than that above Handel's fork. Solo singers and others whose voices ware unjustly strained by this process made a great complaint, in consequence of which learned societies in Germany and England proposed as a compromise 528, and in France 522. But those who sympathise with the singers, especially the singers of Handel's music, will adhere to 512. This is the exact pitch of the Tonic Sol-fa tuning-forks. 3d. Other Tuning-forks. — For stringed instruments a different pitch-tone is used from the C. All these different stringed instruments agree in having an A string. and forks with the sound of that string are used to tune them. For voices, how- ever, the " one-C " (see p. 4) is more convenient. Ze. Tfsts of Pitch.— The pitch of a tuning-fork may be tested by attaching a needle to one of its prongs and allowing it to scratch wavy lines on smoked paper, held just within its reach and gently moved for so many seconds. It is easy to count the number of wavy lines thus made within the number of seconds. There is also an instrument called a Syren which registers the number of puffs of air per second by which its sounds are produced. This instrument has so many partials or harmonics mixing with its sounds that it is often difficult for the ear to recognise its fimdamental tone. Appun's Tono- meter, in the South Kensington Museum, offers a yet more exact means of testing pitch, and by this instrument the Tonic Sol-fa Forks are now adjusted. 4. Replicate or Octave. — When two tones are produced, one of which has twice as many vibrations as the other, they blend with one another so perfectly that the ear recognises them as the same tone, notwithstanding the difference of pitch. They are called by the same name, as C C C|, or d d' d|, the dash showing the octave above or below the medium sound, and are said to be Replicates or Octaves one of the other. 46. Octave. — This word is sometimes used to represent a set of eight tones, and sometimes to represent the eighth tone of a set. This "eighth tone" is the Repli- cate. For convenience sounds are named in octaves, every sound having the same name as its octave, or double octave, above or below. 4c. niustralions. — Women's and chil- dren's voices are, generally speaking, pitched an octave higher than men's voices. The piccolo flute having its tube half the length of an ordinary flute and producing tones which are replicates to that flute, is often called the " octave flute." This lessening of the length and thickness increases the number of vibra- tions. Increasing the tightness of the strings would do the same. The A string of the violin, being about half the length of the A string of the violoncello, pro- duces its replicate. Thus half the length of a string or tube gives double the num- ber of vibrations. But in strings the questions of tightness and thickness also affect the pitch. id. Unison. —This word properly means a sound which is of the same pitch with gome other sound, whether or not it differs In quality, as a violin may produce the same pitch -tone in unison with a trumpet. But when we speak of a whole passage of music being in unison we often mean that the tones of all the "parts " are either in identical imison or in octaves. Properly speaking a unison must not be called an interval, because an interval is the differ- ence in pitch between two tones. 4« Notation. — In the Tonic Sol-fa notation replicates are indicated by figures above or below the notes, thus— d', which is called "one-doh;" d^, which is called "two-doh;" (i|, wliich is called " doh- one; d^, which is called " doh-two." [The Staff notation indicates its tones by means of round notes, close or open, placed upon a staff of five lines with its spaces above, below, and between them. On this staff, if a note is on a line, its octave above or below is always in a space ; and if a note is in a space, its octave is on a line. Octaves are dissimilarly placed. The notes of an octave have also always three lines and three spaces between them. Thus octaves are recognised at sight on the Staff without counting. This will be seen in Fig. 1. Fig. 1. Octaves on the Staff. « THE COMMON BCALB. RANGE OP POSSIBLT: TOyES. 5. The Region of Tones. — There may be as many differeni tones as there can be different numbers of vibrations in a second The number of possible tones is, therefore, practically imcount- able. But the phenomenon of the octave, in connection with the standard of pitch, enables us to fix landmarks in this vast region of possible sounds. The range of numan voices of different kinds extends two octaves above middle C and two octaves below. The tones of an organ, a piano, a harp, and other instruments reach about two octaves higher than women's voices and two octaves lower than men's voices. 66. Notation. — The middle C is repre- sented in the Tonic Sol-fa notation by the letter C, and C of the tuning forks (an octave above it) is represented thus C, and called "one-C" The middle C is represented in the Staff notation by a note on the line below the Treble Staff (Fig. 2.), or on a line above the Bass Staff (Fig. 3.) It is thus in the " middle " between the two Staves. It is also in the middle of the whole range of sounds, high ajid low. More voices and instru- ments can produce this sound than any other. The C an octave higher is repre- sented by a note in the third space of the Treble Staff, counting upwards (Fig. 4. ) Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Middle C is called by the Germans once- lined C ; one-C is called by them twice- lined C, and the octave above — our " two-C " (C^) — they call thrice-lined O— the lines being placed either below or above the notes. The octave below mid- dle C, our "C-one" (C,) they caU small (letter) c, and the octave below that— our ^' C-two" (Ca) they call great C. In the following diagram, the middle shows the region covered by most voices and instru- " ments ; the black notes show the notes reached by human voices, and extremes only rarely ; and the small notes show the octaves covered by very high or low instruments. OCTAVES IN THE REGIOX OF T0XE3. GERMAN (Fig. 5.) TOS'IC SOL-FA NAMES. NAMES. .c or F .^_ C* four-C. "^ or F 3ir C^ three-C. ■^ or c" "*" C2 two-C. = A ^ or c" ?^=^ C one-C. llv^ J _c or c C (middle or unmarked C.) Small c. ©=«- Cj C-one. Great 0. Double CC. zmn Ci C-two. C3 C-three. 6. A Tune and its Key-tone. — A set of musical tones so adapted to each other as to please the ear make a tune. The ear is best pleased when it can perceive relations between the sounds presented to it. Every tune has one tone which is heard strikingly at the beginning and the end, and often during its course.* This is called its governing or key tone. If the governing-tone is taken at a high or at a low pitch, the whole tune is raised or lowered with it. All the other tones of a tune have their measured relations to the key-tone. 66. Relations. — In a picture as well as in a tune it is the relations which give the chief pleasure. The relations of forms and colours to one another are more im- portant than the absolute measurements and tlie exact pignuents which are used. 6c. Absolute and Relative Pilch. — A tone may be spoken of with exclusive regard to the number of %"ibrations by whidi it is produced, as C, C-one (C|), one-C fC), &c. , without consideration of other tones, and this we call its " absolute pitch." A * For till modificatioB of tbi> principle caiued by tb« minor, ••« p»n. 404% KEY-TONES. VIBRATIONAL STRUCTURE OF SCALE. INTERVALS. tone may be spoken of exclusively in refjard to some other tone, as standing at a certain interval, or difference of pitch from it, and this we call its "relative pitch." It is plain that relative pitch is the most important thing in a tune. M. 3[elodt/ and Harmon;/. — A set of tones following one after the other is 7. The Common Scale. — The relation of tones on which most tunes arc founded is called the Common Scale, which we may suppose to be constructed as follows : — A certain tone is chosen from the whole region of possible tones as the principal or key- tone of a tune, and this has its replicates or octaves above and below. Let us call this chosen tone Doh. See Fig. 6 at side, where the tones are marked by tlie first letters of their names. To this are added the two tones which sound the most evenly Avith the key -tone, which we will call Soh and Fall. See Fig. 7. Next there are added two other tones which, though not so like the key- tone, sound more pleasantly with it. These we call ilfe and Lah. See Fig. 8. After which there are two others which, though not sounding well Avhen heard with Doli, sound well with one another and with most of the rest. These we call Te and Eay. Sec Fig. 9. called Melody. A set of tones sounding together is called Harmony. In both cases it is important that tones should have a certain agreement or a pleasant disagi-eement one with the other ; for even in melody " the ear remembers and expects." Fig.6. Fig.7.Fig.8.FiE d' d' d' 1 s s f f n d d d 1, 8| S| f, f, d, d, d, .9. J' t 1 S f n r d ti 1 S| f, n, ri d, Fig. 10. ,DOH' 48 \ TE 45 !lAH 40 BOH 36 TA3. 32 ME 30 RAY 2r Doh 24 or dividing 7'). Vibrational Relations. If d were so very low atone aa to be produced by 24 vibra- tions in a second of time, r would be produced by 27, and so on, as in Fig. 10 at the side. This is the simplest set of figures by which the scale can be represented without fractions. The vi- brational number of the higher and lower replicates can be found by doubling any of these figures. Fig. 11. Fig, 7c. Notation. — The common scale is indicated in the Tonic Sol-fa notation by reference to the " Modulator," which ia a diagn'am used in teaching and made very famibar to the eyes, ears, and memories of the pupils. It corresponds with Fig. 9 above. [In the Staff Notation the common scale is shown by notes placed on or be- tween the lines of the Staff. Figs. 11, 12, 13, show the common scale at different pitches. The signs by which the pitch of the scale is indicated are explained p. 4. J f s 1 t d' 8. Consonant Intervals.— Intervals or differences in pitch between one tone and another, are measured upon the common scale. They are named according to the number of tours of th^t •Additional linps above or below the staff are called Ledg«r lint THE COMMON SCALE. ITS CONSONANT INTERVALS. BCale which they include, always reckoning the highest and lowest tones as well as the intermediate ones. The principal Intervals of the scale, beside the octave, are the Perfect Fifth, between Voh Boh, Bmj Lah, Me Te, Fall Doh\ 8oh Rmf, and Lah 3fe' (Fig. 9) ; the Fourth, between Boh Fah, Bay Soh, Me Lah, 8oh Boh\ Lah Ray\ and Te Me^ ; the IVIajor (or greater) Third, between Loh Me, Fah Lah, and Soh Te ; the Minor (or smaller) Third, between Ray Fah, Me Soh, Lah DoW, Te RayK Tones standing at these Intervals from each other, either in melody or harmony, sound well together, and on this account the Intervals are called Consonant Intervals. 86. Proportionate Vibration of Conso- nances.— If the lower tone of an Octave vibrates once the higher tone vibrates twice, so that the proportionate vibration is 2 t times, the higher tone vibrates 6 times. The proportion is, therefore, 6 to 6. or— as in Fig. 10—36 to 30, 48 to 40, 9. Chordal Structure of the Scale. — A Major Third, with a Minor Third on the top of it (combining one clear perfect Fifth with two pleasant Thirds), form together what is called a Major Chord. No other combination in music is so acceptable to the ear as a Major Chord. On the tones of the scale three distinct Major Chords can be built, one on Boh (Fig. 14), one on Soh (Fig. 15), and one on Fall (Fi^. 16): Those who look on the scale chiefly in relation to harmony say that it is made up of these three chords as shown in Fig. 17. 96. Triad and Gommon Chord. — These terms are used to represent the combina- tion of any tone witli its Thii'd and per- fect Fifth, but this includes, in addition to the Major Chords, chords in which the Minor Third is at the bottom and the &c. Notice that these proportions of 2 to 1, 3 to 2, 4 to 3, 5 to 4, and 6 to 5, are the simplest that can be imagined, and it is these simple proportions "whicli form the principal consonances of the scale. 8c. Consonant contents of the Scale. — The perfect Fifths have a definite and fii-m effect on the mind, and six of them can be built on the tones of the scale. The Fourths have an effect not so definite and firm as the Fifths and not so sweet as the Thirds, but they add to the power of the scale to produce close and clear consonance, whether melodic orharmonic, and there are six of them. The Major Thirds, though not so definite, are very sweet in their effect, and the scale gives three of them. The Minor Thirds are only a little less sweet, and the scale givea four of them. The harmonic power of the scale is thus great and varied. Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. di- Doh" -Te Lah -Soh Fah -Mb (Ray) Doh Major at the top, as those on r, m, and I. Such chords are called Minor Chord,s. 9c. This fact of the chordal structure of the scale is the foundation of the Tonic Sol-fa method of teaching to sing. As was shown above, 8i, the vibrations ol CHORDAX 8TRUCTUEE OF SCALE. DISSONANCE. the T'uirdSjPourths, Fifths, and Octaves, of which the chord is made, fit into one another (strike the ear together) more rapidly and easily than those of any other intervals. By listening well and singing softly, this '"fitting in" of the conson- ances is felt by the learner, and he be- comes confident that he holds the right tone. First the principal chord, that of D, is fixed in ear and voice. At the Second Step the chord of S is added to it, and at the Third Step the chord of F completes the scale. We thus teach by consonance. 9d. The Tuning of Say. — Ray, the second of the scale, is more used with Soh and Te in the chord of S than in any other chord. But it is very often required to chord with Fah and Lah ; and Ray, as we have hitherto described it, does not make a coiTect Fifth with Lah, or a correct Minor Third with Fah. A child may calculate that 40 to 27 (see Fig. 10) does not stand in the relation of 3 to 2. The 27 would have to be lowered to 26|. In the same way he will see that 32 to 27 is not the relation of 6 to 5. The 27 will again have to be lowered to 263. When, therefore, Ray has to tune with Fah and Lah, the ear naturally flattens it by the small interval which is called a komma. Violinists and vocalists, trying to tune with one another, cannot help doing this. We, therefore, regard Hay as the variable tone of the scale, and its lower form when neeessaiy we call Rah, and mark thus r" . In ordinary cases, however, we do not need to use a distinct name for Rah. (Sec General Thompson's " Just Intonation," quoted in " Musical Statics," p. 11). 10. Dissonant Intervals. — The adjacent Intervals or Steps of the Common Scale are these three : — The Greater Step, between Boh Bay, Fah Soh, and Lah Te ; the Smaller Step, between Bay Me and Soh Lah, ; and the Little Step, between Me Fah and Te Doh. These Intervals, as they stand in the Scale, may be read upwards, thus — " Great, small, little ; great, small, great little." Tones standing at these Intervals from each othei do not, when considered alone, sound well together, either in Melody or Harmony. They are called Dissonant Intervals. 106. Proportionate Vibration of Dis- sonances.— If the lower tone of a Great Step vibrates 8 times, the higher tone vibrates during the same period 9 times. The proportion is, therefore, 9 to 8 or — as in Fig. 10—27 to 24 and 36 to 32, &c. When the lower tone of a Small Step vibrates 9 times, the higher tone vibrates during the same period 10 times. The proportion is, therefore, 10 to 9, or— as in Fig. 10-30 to 27 and 40 to 36. When the lower tone of a Little Step vibrates 15 times, the higher tone vibrates during the same period 16 times. The proportion is, therefore, 16 to 15, or— as in Fig. 10—32 to 30 and 48 to 45. 10c. Dissonant contents of the Scale. — Of these dissonances the Lattle Step is the most dissonant, the Small Step is the less dissonant, and the Great Step is the least dissonant. Thus the scale contains 2 of the most disssonant, 2 of the less disson- ant, and 3 of the least dissonant of inter- vals. Let it always be remembered that the two little Steps of the scale lie be- tween its Third and Fourth and its Seventk and Eighth. In moving stepwise, there- fore, up or down the scale we have a constant alternation of consonance and dissonance, with varieties of both. Thus, in singing downward from Fah to Jlle we have strong dissonance ; going down to Hah we have dissonance again mingling with the recollected consonance of Fah and Rah ; going down again to Doh we have another sort of dissonance mingling with the recollected sweet consonance of Me and Doh. lOd. Degrees or Dissonance.— It should be noticed that if one of the tones of a dissonant interval is raised or lowered by an octave, it still remains dissonant, although the dissonance is not so great. If one of the tones is raised two octaves, the dissonance is slighter, but still it is recognised as dissonance. See " How to Observe," p. 90., and for fuller reasons, "Musical Statics," p. 55. 11. The Partial Dissonances. — The Solitary Intervals of the Scale, or those of which only one occurs in each Scale, are the Tritone, from Fah to the Te above, and the I^iminished Fifth, from Te to the Fah above. Tones standing at these intervals 8 TITF COMMON SCALE. TRirOITE AND DIMINISHED FIFTH. from eacti other are not so dissonant as the adjacent tones, but they cannot be called consonances. Their tart effect we call Partial Dissonance. tl6. Partial. — This word bears refer- ence to those small sounds or hannonics which mingle with the body of a principal sound, and are called " Partials." It means here not partially dissonant but " having a dissonance of partials." See " Statics," p. 55. lie. Difference hetween Tritone and Dim- inished Fifth.— The Tritone {Fah up to Te) is made up of two Great Steps and one Small Step. If we measure by kommas as at 136, this will make 26 degrees of the index. But the Diminished lifth (from Te up to Fah) is made up of one Great Step, one Small St«p, and two Little Steps. As two Little Steps are larger than one Great Step, this will make 27 degrees. The Diminished Fifth is, therefore, decidedly the larger interval of the two. Notice that the one may be said to be the inversion of the other. • lid. Position of Little Steps. that the Tritone separates the -Notice ' Little Steps " of the scale, and the Diminished Fifth embraces them. Notice also that the tones included in the Diminished Fifth are plea-santer to sing stepwise than those of the Tritone, because of its greater variety of interval. Three Steps without a Little Step do not make pleasant melody. lie. Favourite Intervals.— VoT the rea- son given above, par. 10c, the ear takes great pleasure in stepwise or di^tomc (through the tones) melody ; and this form of melody is the commonest. Next to stepwise melody, leaps or skips within the different chords, or leaps of Thirds or Sixths from one chord to another ai'e chiefly preferred. An examination of a few melodies will show that among leaps those in the chord of D are by far the commonest. The Tritone is a difficult interval to mag, and may be called anti- melodic. Its inversion, the Diminished Fifth, is seldom u.sed in melody except in descending. See above, lid. 12. The Dividing Place. — The place in the Scale where it divides into two similar portions, is between SoJi and Fah, the Fifth and Fourth — the two tones which make the most perfect consonances with, or sound most like, the key-tone. Above this dividing - place the Steps of the Scale read downward, thus — " Little, great, small," and below it — " Little, Kinall, great." These two portions of the Scale are called Tetrachords (sets of four strings). They are similar but not the same, the upper Tetrachord havmg a Smaller Step and the lower Tetrachord a Greater Step at the bottom. are sometimes called Half-scales, and spoken of as " identical " in structure. It will be easily seen that these two state- ments are only proximately true, for the scale does not divide into exact halves, and the Tetrachords are only identical in having a Little Step at the top of two Steps — the Steps themselves being differ- ent. This difference is of real importance, See p. 7, par. 9d, p. 9, par. 136, Book 11, pp. 39, 57. 13. Intervals of the Scale. — The Litervals of which the Common Scale is capable form an interesting subject of study although in the art of singing they are not now deemed so important as they once were, for attention is now directed immediately to the character and mental effect of a tone in the Scale rather than to its distance from any other tone. But • See below 13«. 126. Tetrachords. — The old writers dis- tinguish two ways of looking at the Tetra- chords. In one way they are called "conjunct Tetrachords," and are read thus — s, It t\ d—d r m, f, being joined to- gether in d. In the other way they are called " disjunct Tetrachords," and are read thus — d r m f—s ltd*, being separated at the dividing place. 12c. Half-scale. — These Tetrachords IKDEX SCALE. MAJOR. MINOR. DIATOKIC. CHROMATIC. PLUPERFECT. 9 students sometimes find it useful to know the exact size of intervals, the number of each sort to be found in the Common Scale, the changes they undergo by inversion or replication, and the common names by which they are known. The following particulars will be valuable for reference. 13ft. Proximate Sleasure of Ailjacent Intervals. — If we t^ke the komma, which is the difference between Hay and Hah, mentioned above (9ii) aa the measure by which to cal- culate the other adjacent in- tervals, the Greater Step will be nine kommas and nearly a half, the Smaller Step 8 and a little more than a half, and the Little Step 5 kommas and close upon one-fifth. See " Musical Statics," p. 102. See also the lesson in "Teach- er's Manual," p. 132. The fractions are not important for ordinary purposes. We may, therefore, speak of the Great Step as 9, the Smaller Btep as 8, and the Little Step as 5. The three Great Steps, the two SmaU Steps, and the two Little Steps put together \£f di I —8 ^ S| n. —9 would thus make 53 defaces. General Thompson has adopt- ed these 53 degi-ees, not as - a perfect measurement of the scale, but as a convenient^-* practical Index to all the sounds which may come with- ■ in an octave. See Fig. 18. J 13c. Major and Minor. — If,_ we examine the intervals which we have called Major Qi Thirds ( Refrain op existing Irish People's Song. Fig. 32. KEY C. I |d :-.r:ni if :- :r |fn :-.r:d ) •.m |f :- :s 11 :t :d' |t ;-.l:s il :- :r |r 16. The Standard Common Scale.— A common Scale, q\ founded on C for its Doh, is called the Standard Scale ; and g the names of its tones are — Doh = C, Bay = D, Me = E, Fah = F, Soh = G, Lah = A, Te = B. See diagram at side. A When further distinctions of tone are needed, the words i "sharp" and "flat" are used to indicate them. A tone ^ which is a Little Step (rather more than half a Step — as Te -p )t f is related to Doh) below D is called C-sharp ; below E, -g , D-sharp ; below G, F-sharp ; below A, G-sharp ; below B, A-sharp. A tone which is a Little Step above C (as Fah is j) ^ related to Me), is called D-flat; above D, E-flat; above F, LX* G-flat ; above G, A-flat ; above A, B-flat. 0 14 THE COMMON SCALE, FLATS. 8HABPS. Fig. 33 16J. Flats and Sharps. — The sign for a flat in the Tonic Sol-fa notation is the alteration of the syllabic vowel to aw, written a, thus, te ta. The sign for a sharp is the alteration of the syllabic vowel to ee, written e, thus, fah fe. [In the Staff Notation the sign for a flat is this 2, placed before a note, and the sign for a sharp is this Jf, placed before a note ; but when a flat has been placed on a par- ticular line or space, at the beginning of the Staff, the sign called a natui-al S will make the note on that line or space, sharp, and if there has been a sharp at the be- ginning of the Staff, the natural will make the note flat. There is also an- other exigency of the Staff Notation, that if a note has been already flatted at the beginning or signature of the Staff, in order to flat it again, the sign of a double flat 5!2 will have to be used ; and in the same way if a note has been sharp- ened in the signature, and is required to be sharpened again, a double sharp, JfJJ, or X, has te be used, (t with a double sharp before it, and B with a double fiat before it, are the same things as A on finger-board instruments, though not with voices and stiinged insti-uments tuning themselves well together. These are merely diflBculties of notation, not of music, and vnth many other such diffi- C B,A,G,F|EiD,C, culties they are explained in my little\ tract "Staff Notation." It should be] noticed that, according to the definition above given, a flat of any given tone is higher than the sharp of the tone next below it. Thus, if we take A and G, which is a Smaller Step of 8 Index degrees, Of will necessarily be 5 degrees (a Little Step) below A, and Aft will necessarily be 5 degrees (a Little Step) above G, and 3 degrees below A. Again, if we take A and B, which form a Greater Step of 9 degrees, we shall find that Afl is 5 degrees below B, and that B? is 4 degrees below it.] On the piano, the \ organ, and the harmonium, no difference f is made between the flats and sharps, but i in true singing, and in the good timing J together of stringed instruments the dif- i ference is necessarily obsen'ed. The dif- | ference is indeed considerable, for as we have seen, there is more than a konmia difference between de and ra, fe and sa, and le and ta, while there are more than two kommas between re and ma, and se and la. 16c. Very rare Accidentals. — Altered notes are loosely called Accidentals. The shai-p of laU is called Ite, that of ba is bee, that of me is my, that of te is ty. The flat of doh may be called du (dew), and that of fahfu [few). 17. A Key. — A Common Scale m.ay be founded on any tone of absolute pitch, and it is said to be in the key of that tone which it takes for doh ; thus, key A, key F, &c. Singers find the pitch of their key-tone, or doh, by sounding the pitch of C on a tuning- fork, and then running down to the pitch-tone they require. The Tonic Sol-fa name given to the tuning-fork must be the same interval above or heJow Doh that the key-tone is below or above C. The following table shows how to pitch ordinary keys quickly : — For Key B[j sound C, call it EAY, then sing r d ■ Ab ME, n r d Gh FAH, f n r d ■ V SOH, s n d E , then sing C' B A G F E Eb , caU it LAH, then sing 1 t d' s n d D .^.^^^ DOHi, ridi _ s n d KEYS SCALE SIGNATURE. 15 C" B A. U Q p n R E D D C C G F/ E' Bb Ub. TheSyitemof Keys.— lataetheory of the Staff Notation tlie key of C, iir the Standard Scale, is tlie natural key, that is, the key natural to the Staff, and there- fore Little Steps are always sup- pnm'd, on the Staff, between E atid F & B & C, and the white di^tala on the finger-board of the piano are made to coiTespond with tliis idea of the Staff. When, there- fore, a different key-note is chosen, the places of the Little Steps have to be shifted. This is done with the voice quite na- tui-ally and almost unconsciously, but on the finger-board by means of the black digitals, and in the notation by means of sharps and flats. Thus, if G is taken as a key-note the Little Step between E and F will not do ; it must come between F and G. See diagram at the side. And therefore a sharp is put on F at the begin- ning of the Staff, and this is called the Key Signatiu-e. If now, we take the key of G, and wish to alter it to the key of D, exactly the same kind of change has to be made by adding Cjf as well as^ FJ. After the same manner be- A A ^ginning again with the key of C, yii we wish to make F the key- Q GtC tone we must, to keep our Little "7 Steps right, put a flat on B. See p F the diagram at the .side. Similarly „ also, taking this key of F if we '^ wish- to make its staff in the key „ of B3 we must put a flat on E, ^ and so on. Notice in the ex- „ amples just given that G is a fifth ^ ahnve C, and D a fifth above G ; notice also that F Is a fifth below C, and Ba a fifth below F. If -we an-ange ' the keys in this order we shall have the following " System of Keys "—key C being taken as the centre,— the sharp keys springing from it by rising fifths and the flat keys by falling fifths or rising fourths. It is important for the student to memo- rize this development of keys. The sharp keys are developed thus, C, Q, D, A, E, B F5, C4 The flat keys are developed thus' C, F, B6, El7, Al2, D&, Off, C6. [17c. Scale Signatures. —ItvfiWbenotxcad. that the flats or sharps which are neces- sary on finger-board instruments, and in the Staff Notation to keep the Little Steps (Diatonic Semitones) in their proper places, are not inserted on the Staff as they are wanted, but are gathered to- gether and placed at the beginning of the Staff. They are understood to affect the whole line or space on which they are placed, throughout the time, as well as the octaves above or below it. They are sometimes called " essential " flats | or sharps, to distinguish ( them from the " acciden- tal" flats or sharps which occur in the course of a tune. Standing together at the beginning of a Staff they are called a "Scale Signature." They are generally placed in one regular symmetrical order, ats shown in Fig. 35. It is easy to see that each ! new sharp is placed on the seventh [le] of the | new key, and each new . flat on the fourth (fah) of the new key. Thus, for finding the key-tone in the Staff Notation, we take the note above the last sharp, or the" fomth Tbelow the ^Jast flat. It is . also easy W ~ retriember thatthela.^t flat but oneis on the k^-triner For wiit- ing the Staff Notation it IS important to mem- orize the places of these flats or sharps of the, signature. The order of' the sharps is, F, C, G, D, A, E, B. The order of the flats is just the re- verse of this, B, E, A, D, G, C, F. The order of the early flats is mem- orized by the word head. This order has a close coiTPspondence with that of the development of keys .shown above. Be- ginning with key F and going to the right we get the names of the sharps ; beginning to the left of key F and moving to the left we get the names of the flats. But the best way to remember these signatures is to write them in the order in which they are placed above, and to do this frequently. In doing so the symmetrical order will help the eye and memory. That order is ruled by the desire to keep the flats or sharps as near together as possible and to keep them all on the Staff ; and it is modi- fied by the use of thos^ different Oleffs which vnll be presently explained.] 9l| ^■ ^ 16 THB COMMON SCALE. TEMPERAMEITT. PrEST IMPRESSION. nd. Temperament. — The tuner of the pianoforte tunes his fifths, as doh to soh, to be clear and bright, perfectly satisfying the ear, ani then he flattens them a little. Although it is very little indeed, yet as the fifth is a very marked aud well defined interval, the dull fifths of the piano are easily noticeable. His thirds he tunes a little too sharp, so that there is an ab- sence of that sweetness which is easily noticeable when voices or violins sound thirds together. Why, then, does the tuner make these changes ? Because if he tuned his instrument perfectly and Bweetly for the key of C, it would be slightly out of tune fbr the key of G, mor', for D, more still for A, more again for E, and so on. He tries, therefore, to make a compromise, and to produce 12 sounds which will answer, as well as pos- sible, for all the keys. This compromise is called Temperament. The plan now commonly adopted is to divide the Scale into 12 equal degrees, and this is called equal temperament. The consequence is that on the piano and other instruments like it, only the octaves aj-e perfectly right, while the other tones are all more or less wrong. The proper effect of the sixth 1. 1' the Scale is nearly lost, and we miss the brightness of the fifth and the sweet- ness of the third. It is a great misfortune for voices to have to sing with these in- struments. It makes them uncertain and unsettled. Mr. Alexander J. Ellis, in his paper before the Royal Society, divides the octaves into 30,103 degrees,* and shows, as follows, what perfect tune or "just intonation" requires for each tone, and what equal temperament offers instead : — Fig. 36. TdSINQ OF THK SCALK.* Just Equal Intonation. Temperament c d' 30,103 30,103 B t 27,300 27,594 A 1 22,185 22,577 G s 17,609 17,560 F f 12,494 12,543 £ m 9,691 10,0S4 D r 5,115 5,017 C d 0 0 The arithmetician will notice that this equal temperament is skilfully contrived, for none of the differences are so great as a komma — the difference above re- ferred to between ray and rah. The komma contains 539 of these degrees or " jots." In equal temperament the third Ls made too sharp by almost two-thirds of a komma, the sixth is too sharp by very nearly three-fourths of a komma, and the seventh is sharpened by more than half a komma. The fifth is flattened by only 49 jots or the eleventh of a komma. If, however, this Skisma, as it is called, is noticeable, much more must the others be. •If it were not that long numbers are difficult to remember and compare, we eould use instead of 9 proximate "index degrees" (page 9), this true measm-ement of 5,115 jots, instead of 8 degrees, 4,576 jots, and instead of 5 degrees, 2,803 jotx, which Professor De Morgan also used. 18. Tones of First Impression. — The tones of a Scale which first strike the ear and mind are the First, Third, and Fifth, because they have strong bonds of agreement together, — makuig between them a " strong " Fifth and two " sweet " Thirds, and, if the octave of doli is added, a " stiff " Foui'th and a " pleasant " Sixth.* These tones are distinguished by the mmd, first, as being one higher than the other, and second, as agreeing so perfectly, strongly, and sweetly together. It is this sense of their being not isolated tones, but a set of related tones which gives them a ready possession of the ear. When tones thus related are heard either together or in immediate succession they are capable of being interpreted as doh me soli of one key, soh te ray^ of another, or fah lah doW of a third. But the ear naturally accepts the first set of such tones which strikes it — the tones of first impres- gion — as a doh me soh, and takes the other sets as the related seta aoih te ray\ and fdh lah dohK * See p. e, par. 8«. LArrNG O0T FOUNDATIONS. SDRR0DNDING3, KFFECT8. 17 186. Illvstrations. — Tunes often begin with arising.fourth. Now, as far as the interval is concerned, this might be inter- preted as rni/snh, or doh-fnh, or sohi-do/i, but as it is the interval of first irapression the ear prefers to take it as part of the tonic chord, that is, to call it soln-dnh. The same may be said of two descendinff thirds, when comingf first on the ear. It is possible to interpret them as my te^ softi, or as dnh' lah fah, but because they come first they have the names of greater dignity given them. We call them soh me dnh. If we heard a rising major third, followed by the first tone of the third, and then by a rising fifth, the mere intervals would justify our calling the n)ira.se /ah luh /oh doh', soh te soh ray\ but we should not do so unless it occurred in the middle of a tune in which the proper tonic chord had already got pos- .session of the ear. If this phrase were at the beginning of a tune, we should inevitably call it doh me doh soh. The first impression of the tones o (the 8lh), th.at we sometimes find it difficult to stop upon it, or to tiu-n back from it when once reached. This property in th" 1th of a scale enables us to know it when we hear it, and to sing it when we are called upon to do so, more easily than any othei sound of the scale, excepting the tonic. Thiis, with a little practice, we shall find ourselves able to leap to it from the most distant parts of the scale. In like man- ner. Fa (the 4th of Do) is suggestive of, and often followed by Mi (the 3rd), and partly from the same cause. For as 5t leads upioards to a sound a semitone above it, so Fa leads downwards to a sound a semitone below it. This properly in the 4th of a scale enables us to recog- nise and to sing it almost as ca.sily as the 7th, and to leap to it also from the most distant parts of the scale. Other sounds of the scale have like tendencies to these. The 2nd inclines towards the 1st, the 6th towards the 5th. As with the 7th and 8th. it is partly by those tendencies or inclinations that, when thoroughly pos- sessed with the sound of the tonic, we are enabled to recosnise and to sing these sounds, no matter what sounds come immediately before them. None of these tendencies, however, are so strong aa those of the 4th towards the Brd, and (still more marked) of the 7th towards the 8th. On account of this tendency, the 7th has-jgot the name of the leading note." — Hullah's " Time and Tune i>« ihe Elementary School" pp. 1.5 to 17 EFFECT OP T0NK8 8UWQ SLOWLY. FORM. COLOUR. 19 21. The Alphabet of Tune. — The effect of the Scale tones cannot be perfectly described in words because words are too definite and realistic, but the following words give the proximate effect of the tones when sung in a slow melody. Alpuabet or Tune.* DOH' The Strong or Flrnt. tone. TE The Piercing or Sensitive tone. LAH The Sad or Wee/pinq tone. SOH The Grand or Bright tone. FAH The Desolate or Awe-im^firivff tono. ME The Steady or Calm tone. RAY The Rousing or Hopeful tone. DOH The Strong or Firm tone. 21ft. Helps to the Learner. — The effect of tones on the mind is not always per- ceived and reali-ed at once, if it were there would remain no difficulty in strik- ing them. The observing' powers have to be awakened. It is essential that each pupil should make his own observation, however different it may be from the observation of others, for only onr oron conception of a thing can help us to aim at it. But it is lawful in teaching to use every appliance of illustration or even of fancy to vivify an impression. Hence, the Tonic Sol-fa method sometimes seeks to impress these mental effects by means of Forms, as Mons. Jeu did. Thus, Jnh would be reprssented by a square block, soh by the same standing on one comer, m" by a round block, fah by a triangle pointing downward, (« by the same point- ing upward, luh by a pendant moon, and ray by an eccentric wheel, siuting iteielf to the chord which calls for it. More commonly, and for teaching purposes more usefully, a set f>f Manual signs are used. See the diagram on p. 12. The dosed fist repre.^ents the definite settled doh—the open downward palm, the soothing me — the open hand with thumb pointing upwards, the excited soA— the inJpx finger pointing downwards, the • See illustratip^.f of meut>ti effect grave /aA— the same finger pointing up- wards, the clinging /?— the whole hand hanging down from the wrist, like the weeping willow, the soJTOwful MA— and the upward hand with outstretched fingers, the expectant rai/. Several at- tempts have also been made to represent these mental eflfccts by means of colours, but when a colour is given to each separate tone of the scale (as by giving the pri- mary colours to (loh, me, soh, and the mixed colours to the intermediate tones) the effect is not pretty. The Eev. D. Batchellor, however, proposes to colour the chords rather than the notes, and this is found both to look well, and to have a distinct usefulness of its own. The ".strong," "steady," and "grand" tones unite to form the solid b/ark choid D — the chord of our " first step." See above, par. 9. The " grand," " piercing," and " rousing " tones unite to form the "chord of motion" — the red chord S. And the "desolate," " sad," and "strong" tones together maltever kind, and the next, we call a pulse. tune is often printed in both these and in other ways, without making any differ- ence in the speed with which it is played. Thus in Fig. il, a, I, ).— the minim being a half, the crot- chet a. fourth, and the quaver an eii/hth of asEsiiUKKVK (ci). These figures, placed on tlie lower part of the Staff, signify wliat is the pulse-note, or beat-note of the tune, and other figures placed over them show how many of those beat-notes thei-e are in each measure. Thus, the figure 2, with another figuie 2 over It, means that the minim is the beat-note of the tune, and that there are two minima or beats in each measure. The figure 4, with 2 over it, means that the crotchet is chosen as the beat-note, and that there are two crotchets in each measure. For an older sign.iture of two-pulse measure see par. 326. 30c. Illustratiuus. — Observe boldness. ii^i^gig KEY F. h :d Is :d Ir :f h ;- 31. Three-pulse Measure- — The primary form of a three- pulse measure begins with a .strong accent, and the accents recur in the following order : — Strong, weak, weak, strong, weak, weale, and so on. The secondary form of three-pulse measure begins with the weak accent, and the accents recur in the following order : — Weak, STRONG, loeak, weak, stkong, weak, iveak, and so on. This measui'e produces a softer and heavier effect than the last. Its second pulse is often sung, and with good effect, as though it were a medium accent, thus, strong, medium, weak, strong, medium, weak, and so on. This is especially the case when the music moves slowly. 316. Notation. — In the Tonic Sol-fa notation the notes are simpiy pluced in the pulse spaces marked out by the ac- cents. In the pi-imary form the accents are marked thus, | : : ||, and in the secondai-y form thus, : | : l|. [In the Staff notation the commonest time signattires for tliis measure are " Thi'ee twos," or three minims in a measirre. and "three fom-s," or three crotchets in ameasm'e. Sometimes "three eights," or thi'ee quavers in a measui'e are used. But, as we have noticed before, it does not now make any difference in the speed or rate of movement, whether a minim, a crotchet, or a quaver is used for the pulse-note.] 31c. Illustrations. — Obseivc suft effect. giS^ip£gg=jSS= KEY B5. Id :r 11. :1. :t, Id 32. Four-pulse Measure.— The primary form of four-pulse measure begins on a strong accent, and the accents recur in the folloAving order : — Strong, weak, medium, weak, and so on. The second form of four-pulse measure begins with a weak accent, and the accents recur in the following order : — Weak, strong, weak, medium, and so on. In the thu"d form the accents recur 28 TIME. FOtJR-TWO AND FOUR-FOtTR MEASURE. IMPORTANCR thus : — Weak, medium, weak, strong, and so on. In the fourto form the measure begins with a medium accent thus : — Medium, weak, STRONG, weak, and so on. The effect of four-pulse measure is like that of two-pulse, except that it is made more delicate and elegant by the distinction between the strong and the medium accents. 326. Notation. — Jn the Tonic Sol-fa notation the primary form of four-pulse measure has its " time-staff " thus — it« second form thus — {: I : I its third form thus— (=1 = 1 and its fourth form thus — and 80 on. [In the Staff notation the best signatures for this measure ai-e "i'our two," or " Four four " — four minims or four crotchets in the measure. But they are little used. A fi^re like the letter C represents what is called Common Time, with four beats in a measure, whether the beats are minims or crotchets. When a perpendicular bar is passed through this symbol, it properly means that a four-pulse measure has been divided into two two-pulse measiires. This sign is chiefly u.sod in the old Church music, where the Tninim corresponds with the beat. It is caUed the Alia Breve or Alia Capella time. ] 32o. Jllustrntion. — The necessity for distinguishing between the strong and the medium accent is perhaps more manifest in poetry than in music. Even the learner can perceive that in every line of poetry one, and sometimes two, of the strong accents are stronger than the other strong accents. In the following verses we have used a double accent to indicate this. Common Metre. When "all Thy 'mer-cies, "O my "God, My "ris-ing "soul sur-"veys. Trans-' port-ed 'with the ••view,rra 'lost In "won-der, 'love, and "praise. Loxo Metre. Be-"foi'e Je-"ho-vah's 'aw-ful "throne. Ye 'na-tions, "bow with 'sa-cred "joy; Know 'that the "Lord is 'God a- "lone ; He 'can cre-"ate and 'He des-"troy. Eights and Sevens. 'Praise to "Thee, thou 'gi-eat Cre-"a-tor •Praise be "Thine from 'eve-ry ' tongue ; 'Join, my "soul, with 'eve-ry "crea-ture, 'Join the "u-ni-'ver-sal "song. Let the learner first read the first verse, giving an equnl stress to each accent, and then let him read it with the accents as marked. To do this may require a little care and close observation at first, — but the student will soon perceive how much more elegant and pleasing a vei'se be- comes when the medium accents are observed. Let him try the same experi- ment with the other verses. When he has done this, let him sing the following tunes to the above verses, first, in two- pulse measure, with equal stress on each accent throughout, and next with the alteration of each alternate " strong " accent into a " medium" one as marked. He will then understand clearly the dif- ference between two-pulse measure and fourrpulse measure. COSniON METRE. gg^'^ W^^^ Tt=g. ■tit gi^^^g^^gg^gfe^P^^^^ KEY E^). f :d h |d' :-.ni Ir .l:s .f [m B^.t. f.E[7. ~.«d|f :i>i.r|d :t, \'^% :— |- |:8 J£ :pi (1 : -.f |n» :r |s :-.8ld' :d.rh :-.rld :— |- OF THE MEDIUM ACCENT m POETRY AND MUSIC. 29 LONG METRE. ^^^M^^^^^^^^^m i^^^^^^^^S^i KEY G. D.t. f.G. { :d |m :r If :m |r :d It, :3 Im :'r'|r' -.d' |d' :t Ms ( :m |f :m Ir :d |d :r Im :m |d :r It, :d.,r|(n :r id EIGHTS AND SEVENS METRE. fe^^SEfea^^gEJEES Mm -.d Is •.m 11 :3 |s.f:m Id :r lei :r Id :t. Id :- The impnrtance of marking the medium accent will appear, if the student, after reading either of the above verses, as marked, simply exchanges the single and double accents, putting one in the place of the other. It will then be obvious to him that the sense of the words requires the second form of foui'-pulse measure for the Common Metre verse, the third form for the Long Metre verse, and the f mirth form for the " Eights and Sevens " verse. He will feel that the third form will not suit the Common Metre verse given, that the second form will not suit the Long Metre, and that the first form will not suit the "Eights and Sevens'' Metre. This is true generally of the metres named, and they are thus printed in Dr. Macfarren's and Dr. Monk's "Anglican Hymn and Tune Book," — but it is only generally true, for lines of exceptional accent are continually occurring in the poetry. To these the singer naturally ad.-ipts himself. The one thing needful to satisfy the taste — as far as music ia concerned — is that the " strong " and " medium " accents should alternate and ^ve variety of effect. See on this subject of the adaptation of poetry and music my " Teacher's Manual," p. 323, and " Construction E.xercises," p. 78. S3. Six-pulse Measure. — The primary form of six-pulse nieasiire begins with a strong accent, and the accents recur in the following order : — Strong, iveah, weak, medium, toeak, weak, and so on. The second form commences with a weak accent thus,— Weak, STRONG, weak, weak, medium, weak, and so on. In the third form the accents recur thus, — Weak, medium, weak, weak, strong, weak, and so on. In the fourth form the measure begins with the medium accent thus, — Mediuw, wmh, weak, strong, weak, weak, 80 TIME. SIX-EIOHT AND 8IX-F0im MEASTTBE. TWELVE-EIGHT. and so on. The effect of six-pulse measure when sung at all Blowly is like that of three-pulse measure, — only raade more delicate and elegant by the distinction of the medium accent. But, when sung quickly, as is commonly the case, it has the effect of a two-pulse measure in which each pulse is divided into thirds, — ^that is to say, it is both bold and elegant. 336. ATojnfion.— Six-pulse measure in the Tonic Sol-fa notation is commonly written upon the following Time Staff : — Primary Form. Second Form. Third Form. Fourth Form. But when the music moves very rapidly BO as to give the feeling of only two pulses in a measure, it can be written like two-pulse measure, with a systematic division of each pulse into thirds thus,— I • • II and when two such meastires are thrown into one, they can be written like a " tripletted" four-pulse measure thus,— I . . : . . I . . = . . II but for clearness to the eye the ordinary form of six-pulse measure notation , above, or twelve-pulse measure notation (par. 33!ntion. — Pi'imary nine-pulse measure stands upon the following Time Staff :— the second form thus- the third form thus — the fourth form thus- 3ic. Illustri.r ld,tn.- :r,f.- |t ,r.- Id :- and "Eohin Adair." KEY B5. jM.- :M.- t^.- jd :- : The broader form of this rhythm is TAATAi-AA. It is "Well known in "My lady is as fair." KEY B!2. Id i-.rim •.d.s,|l,.t,:d |d.t,:— 11 39(Z. Extended Rhythms —The study of this subject may be carried much further. It is interesting to notice, for example, how Handel takes the rhythm ta a -a atai TAATAi and clothes it with various tune forms in " And the glory," — ' And the glory." how Mozart useathe rhythm saa taatai TAATAI TAATAI TAA -AA in the middle of " Cum Sancto Spiritu," 12th Mass, — " Cum Sancto Bpiritu." and how Mendelssohn uses the rhythias TAAtefe TAA, and taa -AAtefe taa in describing the stoning both of Stephen and of Paul Many other cases might b« quoted. MUSICAL THEORY. BOOK II. THE MINOll MODE AND TRANSITION. The Minor Mode. 40. The Ray and Lah Modes. — A mode of using the Common Scale which makes Iia>j the most prominent tone in a tune or part of a tune, is called the B,aij Mode. The mode of using the Common Scale which makes Lah predominate, is called the Lah Mode. These, as well as other Modes (see p. 13, above), partake of the character and mental effect of the tone on which they are founded. The Eaij, or more properly (to make Bay tune with Lah and Fah) the Bah Mode (see above, p. 7, par. 9d) has a "hopeh-il," j^rayerful effect. The Lah mode has a more markedly sad and sorro\vful effect (see p. 19.) Both modes, however, having Minor Thwds are called Minor Modes. 40b. Causes of Predominance. — A tone may be made to predominate in any tune or passag'e — 1st, by being put in the cadence or close of a musical line where the ear receives a strong impression ; 2nd, by being much used, especially on the strong pulses of tlie measure ; and 3r(l, by being approached from its Perfect Fifth above, or Fourth below. These things in- tensify the mental eflfect of a twne. See p. 13 above, and further, St. Co., p. 83. 40c. Differences between the Bah, Lah, and Doh Modes. — When a tone is thus made prominent it is important that the relations of other tones to it should be well understood. It will be seen from the diagram at the side that in both the Rah and Lah Modes the Thii-d of the Mode is minor. The same may be said of the Seventh in each of these modes. See above, pp. 9, 11, 12 But there is a difference in their Sixtlis. the Rah Mode having a Major Sixth, and the Lah Mode a Minor Sixth ; so that fah in the LaU Mode and te in the Rah Mode are tones which distinguish these two Modes from each other. In other words, the differ- ence lies in the upper part of the Modes, and it is the difference between the melodies d' t I and sfm. In the Doh Mode the Third, the Sixth, and the Seventh are all Major. Comparing the places of the Little Steps in the different Modes, we notice that they lie between the Third and Fourth and Seventh and Eighth in the Doh Mode, between the Second and Thii-d and Sixth and Seventh in the Rah Mode, and between the Second and Third and Fifth and Sixth in the Lah Mode. In stepwise melodies these places of the semitones minister to the characteristic effect. =|«5s r'l d' 1 t di/ \ s t 1 \ f 1 s n s f r n f / N d n r t 4(VZ. Dorian and .^olinn. — The Greekt calk 1 their Modes after different districts (39) 40 MINOR MODE ; DEVKLOPMENT FROM TUE ANCIKXT MINOR t)f tht'ir country. But unfortunately different Greek writers gave the same name to different Models, and the ecclesiastical writers of the sixteenth century altered the names again. Accord- ing to the system of names last used, the Doh ^[ode would be caUed Ionian ; the Eay mode, Dorian ; and the Lah Mode, .ffiolian. 41. — Old Minor Tunes. — Before modem haniwny {ate above, p. 5) was invented, composers commonly -wrote tninor tunes either in the Rah or Lah Mode, and they sang these sloAvly -when they wished to express sad and sorroAvfiil sentiments, and quickly when they meant a lively abandonment of emotion, or a mock solemnity. They did this without altering any of the intervals of the Common Scale, thus retaining the distinct character of the two Modes. 4\b. Kxnmples. — " John Anderson, my jo" is an ancient ecclesiastical tune, in the Rah Jlode, to which Bums adapted new words. The following is copied from i\Ir. Colin Brown's "Eoyal Edition of the Sonffs of Scotland." Mr. Mac- farren also, in his lectui'es, speaks of the "flat seventh" in old copies of this tune. " My love's in Germany " is an old tune, in the Lah Mode, which is also copied from the " Royal Edition." 5Ii\ Brown, who lived as boy and youth in the High- lands of Scotland, had the best means of knowing the original traditional forma of these tunes which are still so sung. Notice also that the sorroveful or "minor ' effect cm be produced without xising either the Seventh or Sixth of the Mode —simply by emphasizing lak, as in " Munich." JOHN ANDERSON, MY JO'. s|f :1 Id' :— |1 :1 |.s :-.f \m :f Is :— | ) g^=^^:^^=^gg=zz£^ :f.s|l :f |s :m If :r |1 :r.d|l, :r |r :d Ir :— | MY LOVE'S IN GEKMANIE. KBV C. :ni 11 .,t:l ,3 |m -.r ..did' :t .1 |r' :d' .,t|l .>•' ,s |m .,r;m .» OF THE MODKRN MINOR. MODAL KKLATION. 41 m I :l .t Id' .,t:d'.r' |iti' :r'.,d'|t .,d':r'.t |8 :d'.r'|iTi' .,1:1 .s |n .,r:m .s II :1 .rn |d' :d'.r' Im' .,1:1 .s |m .r :iii .s 11 : — | MUNICH. KBV C. :1 Id' :t ;1 |d':t ;1 In':- :r'.d'|t :- :t|d':- :r'|iri' :- :iti' Ir' :d' :t |1 :ni' Ir' :- :d'|t :- :n' Ir':- :d'|t :- :t Id' :- :r'|m' :- :ni' |r':d':t |1 :- 42. The Modern Minor.— When the first aysteuiaho attempts at the singing together of voices taking different |)arts were made, it was fonnd that the sliarpening of the Seventh, in the Rah and Lah Modes, improved the harmonic effect. It was also found that the cadences of the Rah Mode did not sound well with harmony. Thus the Modern Minor was founded upon tho old Lah Mode, with a sharp Seventh, and the Rah Mode gradually fell into disuse. After a considerable time the principal tone of a Mode (whether Doli or Lah) came to be called the Tonic, and the Fifth above (called Dominant) and Fifth below (Subdominant) were regarded as its recognised attendants. The Doh Mode was spoken of as the one Major Mode, and the Lah Mode with its alterations as the one Minor Mode. 42/). Fowei- of the Fi/th.—There is a peculiar and sympathie relation between any tone and the Perfect Fifth above it. Kee " Statics," pp. 5',) to 60. Moreover the Fifth itself is a very definite interval — more clearly marked to the ear than any other beside the octave. See " Statics," p. 56. Fueri/ tone may be said to ff've birth to its Over-Fifth, and to " lay hold of " its XJuder-Fifth. But when a particular tons is chosen, not only to be itself a cadencit tone, and to be emphati- cally employed throughout the tune, but to have its atleudaut Fifths also empha- sized, then its importance is greatly magnified. 42i;. Hilmlal Jlflatlnn.—The introduction of harmony compelled .a closir study of the intervals of a Mode ; for sounds lizard together are more easily compared than sounds lieard one after anotlier. Thus it was that the importance to the Pre- dominating' Tone of its Over-Fifth or Under-Fouilh. and also the iiiiiinrtance of its Under-Fifth, came gradually to be 42 MINOR MODE ; HISTOEr OF MINOR. SHARP SETENTH. recognised by musical men. It was fovind that in giving importance to these tones additional impoitance was also given to the Predominating Tone, on which they were the acknowledged attendants. In the early part of the last century, this relation of tones to the Mode-tone — this " modal relation " — was increasingly felt, and the name Tonic was given to the " Predominating " tone of a Mode, Dominant to its Over- Fifth, and Subdominant to its Under-Fifth. These were the most important. Other names were added, such as Mediant for the tone about half-way between Tonic and Dominant, Submediant for the tone about half-way from the Tonic down to its Subdominant, Supertonic for the tone next above the Tonic, Leadinglone or Sub- tonic to the sound a Little Step below the Tonic. Subtonic is better u.sed for a sound (like Soh in the Lah Mode) which is a Full Step below the Tome. 42d. Examples.— Thus, in the Doh Mode, with which we are already famUiar, Doh is the Tonic, Soh the Dominant, Fah the Subdominant, J/e the Mediant, Lah the Submediant, Bay the Supertonic, and Te the Leading Tone. In this as in other Modes, since modem harmony began, important places are given, especially in cadences, to the Dominant and Subdominant, and this adds to the importance of the Tonic. Harmony demanded to impose upon the various Modes then in use its own princi- ples. Among these was it-s love of a Major Chord (see above, p. 6), and the Doh Mode alone was found to possess these bright Major chords for both the Dominant and Subdominant as well as for the Tonic. This has given to the Doh Mode a greater pre-eminence than it possessed before. In the Rah Mode rah is the Tonic, lah the Dominant, and soh the Subdominant. Thus both Dominant and Tonic would have Jlinor chords, and two Minor chords coming together in a cadence were found too much for the ear. In the early contrapuntal writings, the Dominant was made Major by altering its Third doh into de. Even then the two Major chords of Subdominant and Dominant coining immediately before the Minor Tonic, were felt to outshine and discredit it by their brightness. The cadence was not satisfactory, and the Eah Mode feU gradually into disuse. In the Lah Mode, lah is the Tonic, me the Dominant, and rah the Subdominant Here the case seemed worse to begrin with, because both Dominant and Sub- dominant as well as Tonic had Minor chords. At first the contrapuntists gave a Major chord to the Tonic by altering its Third, doh, into de, but this deprived the chord Lah of its true character and mental effect. Next they altered the Dominant, by sharpening its Third, soh, into se. And this was found satisfactory, for it prevented two Minor chords coming together in a cadence and it brightened the cadence without taking from it aU its mournful effect. See fm-ther, " Con- struction Exercises," p. 90, "How to Observe Harmony," p. 75, and Book "V of this present work, p. 319. 4'2«. Historical Specimens. — In old printed books and manuscripts these two phenomena may be observed. First, the Seventh of the Minor Mode, say in the Gregorian Tones, is printed for the prie-st who sings alone, without a sharp, but in the response of the foui-part choir it is printed with a shai-p. Second, in many cases the sharp is placed not before the note but a long way above it, to indicate that it was an optional shaip, and in iLose old days, rules used to be given for taking the Seventh sharp in some cases and flat in others. See my "Historical Specimens." These are interesting relics of the transition time between melody and harmony. 43. The Sharp Seventh (se).— The Sharp Seventh of the Lah Mode is called Se. In modern Minor music it is a con- stituent part of one of the chords of the Mode. It is essential to the harmony. But its introduction creates an unpleasant melodic interval from Se down to Fah. To avoid this, the Flat Seventh Soh is preferred when it can be taken as an incidental or passing tone in a doivnward melody, but it is not used as an essential tone of a chord, except in the Bass when the Bass melody moves downward, thus 1 s f, and sometimes when a Minor phrase is passing into a Major one. 436. Historical Changes. — Thus it was that a Sharp Seventh came to be used in Om tune of "John Anderson," quoted above, p. 40, and the tune was written in the Lah Mode, at the expense of creating a new " accidental " (see p. 16) at the ena OLD TUNES WITH MODERN CHANGES. 43 of the fouith measiire. The following is I was also altered. In Wood's " Songs ol copied from Wood's " Songs of Scotland" Scotland " it appears as below. The old tune " My love's in Germany " | JOHN ANDERSON, MY JO'. H3E KEY Bb.* :1, jm, :1, |1, :t, Id :— |d :i\d|t :1, |s, :te, Is, :— |- rS^l^i^^^^^p^^ :li Im, :1| |1, :t, Id :— |d :r Im :-.r|d :r \m J — T-fg ,- I- q!fe*^:it ^ ^ ^ m i=ta; Ipi :-.T |d :m is ;— |f :m Ir t-.djt, :d Ir :— | — ^m^^^^^^^^ :d.r|ni :d |r -.t, Id :1, |ni :!, Im, :1, |1, :se, 11, :— |- MY LOVE'S IN GERMANIE. :m 11 .,t:l ,s im :r .,d|d' :t .1 |r :d .t 11 .,t:l .s \m .,r;ri Inh in the Major Mode is its best apology. Another sharp Sixth of the Minor Mode sometimes occurs in a chromatic chord. See " How to Observe Harmony," ils. 205 to 209, and 224. But that, as will be shown in Book V., Ls /« not ha'j, and is a komma higher. As hat/ is exclusively used in imitation of lah, so it sounds best when it best imitates the just intonation of lah, and is taken a true Minor Third (14 degrees, p. 9, or more perfectly, 7,918 jots, p. 16) i>elow its Tonic. If we sang fe instead of iav in the following examples, we should lose the sad L:ih-like effect, and put some- thing hard and sharp in its place. iic. Examples . —The sharp Sixth ia used in such passages as the following : — CSKS OF UAH. SCALE, KEY, AND MODE. nV.tving.J QUI TOLLTS. 45 Mozart's "12th Mass." .1 11 :1 .1 11 :— : — :seba:se II f Passing J FROM THIS DREAD SCENE. Handel's " Judas." (Steptvise.) TU SOLUS. Mozart's " 12th." -^^ :3= 11 :- .t,se|l,i»i.ba,se:l,t.d',r'|n' :r',d'.t,l|s WE NEVER WILL BOW DOWN. (Leaping.) Handel's " Judas.' ^E^^E^^g^^^EPgE^^EEEEa^^F^^ .sell .t :m .ba Ise.l :t .1 :t .d' :- .ba:se 11 iid. Es^ntial Distinction of Major and Minor Modes. — It will be seen from the above that, except for harmony, the Bliai-p Seventh is not absolutely essential to the Minor Mode ; that except occa- sionally for melody, the sharp Sixth is oritainly not essential — the flat Sixth bciijy regarded as an important charac- t'-ri-tlc of the Mode. The essential ditfer- ence is that the''Minor Mode lias a Jlinor Third, and tlie Majo'' Jlode a IMajor Third, for the ttrst Tliird above its Tonic. But in the ai>i)roaeh to the Tonic from Zif/ojo, the modern Minor (not the old Lah Mode) is continually imilaliny its relative Major. Thus the essential tones of the Minor Mode are doh and fah. 4.5. Scale, Key, and Mode. — A Scale is a certain set of tones, within an Octave, wliicli it is agreeable to sing as a melody upward or downward. Varioiis Scales might be invented, but the Common Scale — that which is found to suit best our hucian ears and our human nature — has the relations described at pp. 5 to 12, above. By a Key is meant this Common Scale with its Doll fixed to some particular pitch tone. When it is fixed to the pitch tone C, it is called the Standard Scale, or Key of C. When this Common Scale is fixed to B &, it is called the Key of Bt7, when fixed to A it is called the Key of A, and so on. A Mode is a certain way of dealing with the tones of this Scale in the course of a tune, making cue tone come out as a Tonic, another as its Dominant, and so on. The place of Doh in the Scale (p. 121 is the same whatever the Key and whatever 46 MINOR modt: ; the minor not a key but a mode. the Mode. The word Scale refers to arrangement of intervala, the word Key refers to the pitch at which a Scale is taken, and the word Mode refei"s to the relative importance given to paiticular tones of the Scale or Key. The Common Scale corresponds with the Major ]\fode. The Greek philosophers built their Common Scale on their old Minor Mode, but our Modern Minor was too changeable to be used as the Scale by which other Modes are measured. The word Key as we use it, for a " pitch indicator," corresponds with the Major Mode. We might have given the pitch in accordance mth the Relative Minor, but we gave preference to the Major, because it is more used, and because the Staff Notation signatures did so before us. Besides, the Minor cannot stand alone like the Major — is not so independent and satisfactory. The habit which has arisen of naming the pitch of the music sometimes from the Major and sometimes from its Relative ]\Iinor, is a very confusing one to the musical thinker. It is better to choose one of the Modes for the indication of pitch, and we prefer the Major for the reasons given. But students s' ould remember that they will often see the phrase " Minor Key " when Minor Mode is meant, and Key of A Minor for the " Key of C, Minor Mode." See diagram, p. ,50. 456. Signature of Minor Mode.— The signature, both in the Sol-fa and the Staff Notation, is the sig^nature of the Key, not of the Mode. Hence there is no change of signature when there comes a change of Mode. See the top of " Extended Modulator," pp. 50. This practice arose naturally, in the history of the Staff Notation, before modem har- mony was developed. But even in the Modern Minor, as the .sharp Seventh is •lot exclusively used, and the sharp Sixth is but little used, it is found more con- venient simply to add these sharps when they are wanted. If the signature were changed for them or only for the sharp Peventh, the signature of Bb, Minor Mode (called also G Minor) would be this — and the signature of C, ilinor Mode (also called A Minor) would be this — or this lySj ^ n Lvy_ H Some have even proposed for " Q minor," this — I andfor"A]Minor," 1 — '9~f^ — n I this- B^eI t thus using the same signature as for the Major Mode based on the same pitch tone — Major of the same tonic. This last plan would require a flat or natural ou the Third of the Mode whenever it occurred, and sometimes on the Seventh of the Mode, and most commonly on the Sixth. All these plans would create con- fusion of eye and mind, and this fact is a strong argument for maintaining a dis- tinction between Key and Mode. Tlie signature of what is called " A Minor " would be, "KeyC, iaftis A," thesignatiue of what is called G Minor would he "Key B5, Lah is G," and so on. Thus the absolute pitch even of the Elinor Tonic is given, and the true relation of Key and Mode is still maintained. Indeed ou this point the two notations perfectly agree. Some are dissatisfied with this state of things. They say that the Minor is as much a Key (they mean in our sense as much a Mode) as the Major, and that the rules of chordal progression and the resolution of dissonances being the same in both cases, it would be better to have the same notation and the same sol-fa syllables. No doubt the Modal Relation, of which we have spoken above, is the same in both Modes, hut they differ con- siderably in the details. See " Row to Observe Harmony." p. 76, and below, p. 321. It is better, therefore, that they should be separately treated. 45c. " Forms of the Minor .<^ra?e."— The modem Minor is so variable that we prefer not to call it a Scale, because the word Scale generally implies something fixed and settled. Some books, however, assume th.at there must be a Scale for THB SO-CAHKD "FORMS OF THE "MINOR SCALE. 47 everythmgr that is suug. And to account for the variable character of the modem llinor they are obliged to set out the theory that there are at least four different t'oriiis of " tlie Minor Scale." In order to fit this theory to the facts of the case they would have to suppose that in the coiu-se of a single tune the composer hops from one of these " fonns " to another ! How much closi:r to the facts is the theory that there is one "mode" with two of its tones "variable" according to certain circumstances. Nevertheless the student should remember these " forms." THE NATURAL "DIATONIC" FORM. 1 t d' r' D' f s' 1' II 1' s' f m' r' d' t 1 H THE HARMONIC OR " CHROJklATIC " ^ C> jfi= -^. .-<^ Ji2 « FORM. :(!• a_ =S= _C-! ,s- -/s- "■"S — ■7 1 t d' r' iti' f se' r II r se' f m' r' d' t 1 THE MELODIC, OR " ASCENDING AND DESCENDING" FORM. — — Bgzzz; — ,g — gj — - — — _fl 1 t d' r' m' ba' se' 1' || 1' s' f m' r' d' t 1 THE MELODIC FORM, USED BOTH ASCENDING AND DESCENDING. # i==Ss=?5rz -t^-t^—r^ m^ n' ba' se' 1' r se' m' r' d' t 1 4od. ^^ Tone," ^' Diiitonic," '^ Mode." — These words are used in different senses. By a Tone we mean a musical sound (p. 1), but the word is often used to represent the interval of a Step (p. 9), and " Semitone " is used for a "Little Step." Diatonic means literally " through the tones," and we understand it to refer to a stepwise motion up or down the Common Scale. But the phrase " Diatonic Scale," is often iLsed, and it is thus defined — "A scale of eight different sounds, separated by Hve tones and two semitones, is called a Diatonic Scale." This definition would include the ascending melodic form ot the Minor (above, par. 45c) as a Diatonic Scale. By the word Mode we have under- stood such a " mode" of ordering a tune — especially by setting up the relation of Tonic, Dominant, and Subdominant — as to bring into prominence a certain tone of the Scale. Others aiming at the same point give what seems a different defini- tion, as follows—" The order of these tones and semitones— the peculiar manner or mode in which they can be arranged — will vary with the note on which the Scale be^ns and ends." 48 TirE MODKRN MINOH OCCASIONALLY CHANGES. 4G. Mental Effects in the Modern Minor. — The Mental Effects of tlie tones of tlie Cominon Scale are caused by their Scale Rulation, or " the way in whicli they harmonize and dissonate one with anotlier." See alcove, pp. 17 to 19. Tht Modal Relation of Avhicli Ave have spoken above did not alter the JSIental Effects of the tones, but only intensified the effect of those tones which were chosen as Tonic, Dominant, and Sub- dominant of a Tune. This will be felt by anyone who sings the simple tunes above, p. 40. But the JModern Minor is move than a Mode, because it alters not only the Modal but also the Scale Relation, and thus to some extent the mental effect of the tones. It is also less than a Scale, because its alterations of Scale Relation are only occasional and variable. Hence some care is needed in studying its mental effects. 46^. D»h in a Ray Mode fune is almost as bold and strong' as in a DoU Mode Tune. It is the same in a pui-ely Tyih Mode tune. But the ^Modern Minor not only sets up a new Dominant, Sub- dominant, and Tonic, but alters the Dominant and sometimes also the Sub- dominant of doh. So that doh is left without its accustomed attendants and supporters. Be.sides this, the ear being chiefly used to the Doh Mode, the new Leading-tone se gives the mind to expect a doh to follow with its accustomed Major 'J'hird above. Tlie doh is thus obliged to intrude itself where the mind does not ask for it, and assert, somewhat sullenly, its unaltered determination and firmness. In these ca-ses doh gives us the sense of hard struggle against difficulties. But when it appeai-s in the same harmony with yaA and Inh, even in a Modem Minor tune, doh is quite itself again. A&c. The sharp Seventh also affects the Fifth of the new Mode, mi'., especially when they are heard together in the same chord. The me with its surroundings thus altered (see p. 17) loses much of its gentleness and peacetulness, and has a firmer and harder effect. 4<5(i. Another tone " altered in its surroundings " by the sharp Seventh, is le when it occurs in the same chord with se. After hearing the se the mind has a natural tendency to expect from te the .same mental effect which it had been accustomed to expect from ray, in the Doh Mode, after hearing te. Besides this, the new " modal relation," especially with harmony, constantly requires the le to go downward to I ah, and but rarely allows it in its old habit of clinging to doh. These changed circumstances cer- tainly modify the piercing effect of the old " note-sensible," but when, even in the Modem Minor, te is harmonized with ruh and/«i it asserts its old effect again. 46-". The ray in the Modem Minor, as in the Lah Mode, is really a komma lower, and becomes rah (p. 7). Its effect is better described by the word " prayer- ful "than by the words "rousing" and " hopeful." 4(5/'. The effect of lah is ceitainly modified when it is preceded by se instead of snh ; it gives us an idea of " the refine- ment of sorrow" in.stead of " the abandon- ment of grief." But, even in a Modem Minor, when lah occurs away from these changed surroundings, as in the chord of its Submediant fah, its old chai-acter is reclaimed. 40^. i^nA carries its " desolate " effect into the Modern Minor v.'ithout change. It does not retain its old distinction aa the Subdominant, but it constantly occurs in the Subdominant chord, and is itself, as appears above, a characteristic of the Lah Mode. 4()A. Soh. in the Modem Minor, seldom occvu's, and very rarely as the Fifth of a doh chord ; it comes in as a " flat " whore the new Mode had taught us to expect its " sharp." Thus it loses much of its brightness of effect. 46i. The effect of se is manifestly an imitation of te in the Major ]\Iode, as that of bah is an imitation of lah. 4Gk. Summary. — Thus, notwithstand- ing the disturbing influence of .96 and hah, the tones te, ray, fah, and lah (the old emotional or leaning tones of the scale, p. 17) change their mental effect very little if at all. Doh retains all its firm- ness, though under difficulties, and the greatest damage the sharpening of the Seventh does, is to soh, wliich it displaces in the ear, and to me, which it harmonizes with a Major instead of a Minor Third. This being so. Tonic Sol-faLsts do not teach the Modern Minor as a new and separate scale. Their pupils have nothing new to learn except the frequent intruder SCALE RELATION, AND WITH TT MENTAL EFFECT. MODULATION. 49 I', and the occasional intruder ha. They And that the Minor Mode is lii'st Sling when tlie firm dnh in kept in mind. In pitchiufr a ]Minor tune tlicy therefore strike the tone doh first ami then the tones Inh, doh, me. "You Jon't teach the Minor scale," said an old •Dusician to a Tonic Sol-fa teacher. " No, Jilt we can sing Minor tunes," was the ' reply. The musician who had been drilling his class laboriously for a long time in the " melodic form of the Minor scale," with small effect, was surprised to hear a youn? Sol-fa class singing " Be- hold the Lamb." Experiences of this kind justify, we think, our theory of the Minor Mode. 47. Modulation. — Frequently in the course of a Major tune, 5«, change is made to the Minor Mode, and more fi-equently in the oourse of a Minor tune the music changes into the Major Mode. This change of Mode is called Modulation. The commonest forms of Modulation are when the Major changes to the Minor or the Minor to the Major, without a change of key. A change to the Minor of the same key is called a Modulation to the Relative Minor. A change to the Major of the same key is called a Modulation to the Relative Major. 476. Examples. — The commonest case of Modulation from Major to Eelative Minor is at the ends of lines. See the first and second lines of "Jerusalem, the golden," and the second and third lines of " Battishill " below. The com- monest case of Modulation from the Minor to its relative M.ajor is in a com- plete line or passage which is intended to brighten up the tune. See flist and second line of the tune " St. Bride's," below. There are, of course, other cases of this Modulation more or less length- ened. KEY D. JERUSALEM THE GOLDEN. A. Ewino. i3 KET F. :d Ir :d \t -.m [r : - \A :m Is :d' |t :se 11 :— j || BATTISHILL. iS^ :1 '.d' Is :f .m :r .d Id .,r tm :r |d : — ^^m =p^ft.z=p- II :- :t |d' .t :1 Ise :1 im gi^l^ ST. BRIDE'S. Dr. Howard. gsgsa=p=j^^S=e£ KEY C. :1 h :d' 61 W" i^ 'tM ft 'u cw E •Td -M >H '«- «fH E Jh 'k **- Ph H =«= P =«: Q w pq S H » -r!'w o rt oj p m E~ S «4H ^ '». 5h 'k »H 'h S ««H 62 MTKOK MODE ; HOW TO TEACH IT. MEMORIZING. 47c Ffan of Teaching. — This relation Oetween the Alajor and its relative Minor is a great assistance in teaching the Minor Mode. By contra-sting iilu-ases of similar shape and waving (thcnia-h it may be with somewhat different inter- vals) in the two Modes, the unsubstantial, weird, shadowy character of the ^Minor is impressed on the mind. It is not until the pupil learns to recognise tliis charac- ter, that he Ls able to sing with confidence. If instead of thi-s the mind is attracted to the question of interval it misses the mental effect, and nothing helps correct singing like a conscioiLsness of the effect to be produced. See " Teacher's Manual," pp. 433 to 444. 47d. Mental Effects of Modulation. — Notice that in Jlodulation to the relative, wliile the particular tones change their mental effect only slightly, tlie mental effect of the passage or line of the tune which thus modulates is greatly changed. In fact, the tune rises or fiills to a new Mode in order to get the effect. — and it gets this new effect because the tones themselves have not altered materially, even in the Modem Minor. The effect is that of going into shadow and gloom. 47e. The Word " Modulation."— This word is much used in a two-fold sense. Originally it meant change of Mode, b\it when, along with modem haimony, changes of key were introduced, un- fortunately writers did not give a different name to these different changes. Even now the word Transition is only partially established for this new purpose. The distinction, however, between changing the pitch of your scale and changing your Mode of tising it is so important that all who value clear thinking and good teach- ing should be careful to maintain it in their own practice. Students mu-st be prepai'ed, nevertheless, to see the word Modulation used when only change of key is meant. 47/. Memorizing the System, of Keys. — It is .absolutely necessary for the student who would properly understand the sub- ject of Modulation orTransition to memo- rize the system of keys, pp. 1,5, 50. To do this, notice first, that from left to right of the modulator each key is one-fifth higher, or (which is the same thing) one- fourth lower than the last, and that from right to left each key is one-/'5«/(A higher or (which is the s, we have the s.ame woi-d, spelt backward, " daeb." It is seldom neces.sary to re- member the extreme keys ; but Db, Ob, and Cb, are easily remembered from the more familiar D, G, C, and B, FJ, CJ from the more f.amiliar BD, F, C. The only way to commit this order well to memory is to lorlte it from mcmoiy fre- quently, just as it stands on the top of the Extended Modulator. AVhen this has been done, it wili be useful, especially for Government examinations, to mem- orize the rel.ative Minors, — thus, doh is C, lah is A, doh is F, lah is D. It may be some help to remember that the relative Minora always have the same name as the third sharp key, and the relative Majoi-s the same name as the third flat key. This also can be learnt by fre- quently writing it from memory. [47^. Memorizing the Signature-l.-StaQ notation students should leam to remem- ber the signatures by often writing, from memory. Figs , pp. 1.5, .50, writing the names of the Major keys above and those of the relative Elinor below. This will not be difficult, if they remember the place of the first sharp and of the first flat. The tone above the hist sharp is doh ; sharpen the f ah of that key and soh becomes the new key-tone. The tone below the last flat is me ; flatten the le of that key and fah (or the tone on which the last flat stood) becomes the new key-tone. Or think of it thus : — After the fii-st sharp, the sh.arps are placed in the order of falling Fourths and rising Fifths, until we come to five sharps, and there the fifth sharp, if placed up a Fifth, would require a ledger line, and therefore moves down a Fom-th. After the first flat, the flats are placed in the order of rising Fourths and falling Fifths throughout the keys. It is important to maintain this symmetry of appearance (showing the sharps in rising line.? and the fiats in falling lines) because uniformity of practice promotes quickness and certiiinty of apprehension. 'ITie signatures of the bass and other clefs follow the s.ame general rules. If one wishes to remember the names of the shai-ps or flats in a signature, it will be helpful to notice that they follow the same order as the keys themselves, thxis, the sharps run F, C, G, " D, A, E, B," and the flats run " B, E, A, D," G, C, F.] [47A. M idulation in the f!taff Kolalinn. — As the signatures of a Major key and its relative Minor are the same, it is diSicult in the Staff notation to see, a< once, in which Mode the music stands. Perhaps the Jlinor is most easily di» CHANGE OF KET. 5d tiuguished by its shup ui)ou soh, espe- I cially in flat keys. The reader must be guarded against thinkiug of the Uiird Bliarp key, when the sharp on fah conies in immediately after or before that on soh. See further, " Staff Notation," p. 3'2. The general rule, of looking to the next full cadence, and seeing whether doh or lah is made the principal tone, ■will often be useful.] Transition. 48. Transition. — During tlie course o£ most tunes there is a change of Key, — that is the Doli is taken at a different pitch. This " passing over " of the music into another key is called Transition. Transition without change of Mode we call Simple Transition. Transition with change of Mode we call Transi- tional Modulation. 48?i. Indefinite Naming. — The word Modulation is commonly and loosely used — 1st, for Transition ; '2nd, for Transitional Modulation ; and 3rd, for its original and true meaning — Change of Mode'. It is important thiit in our thoughts and teach- ings we should avoid using one word for three things. See above, i^ai-. 476. 4Sc. Cadence, Extended, and Passinij. — A Transition or a Modulation, which be- gins within two measiii-es of the end of a " line " (not fui'ther back than the third- hist strong or medium accent) , and does not go beyond the line, we call a " Ca- dence " transition, or modulation. One which goes beyond those limits ■we call " Extended." One which is not in a ca- dence and does not extend more than two or three pulses we call " Pa.ssing." 49. The First Sharp Key.— The commonest of Simple Transition is when the Fifth above the pre form . . j-.'evious Kc^ tone is tal;en for the new Boh. This Transition is made in melody by Fe displacing Fah, and the intro- duction of a new " Leading-tone " under .S'o/i. We call it Transition to the First Sharp Key. When this Simple First-sharp Transition moves fi-oni the Minor Mode of one key to that ot another, there are additional changes ; the old Se falls back into the place of Soh, and the new Se is created as a Leadingtone below Mc. But in both cases the tones of the old key change their mental effects, and ydi\\ them their names, so as to set up the old Scale relation around a new Key-tone. See the diagram at the side. s d te. -t f n 1 4')/<. Bridge-note. — In the Tonic Sol-fa notation, whenever the Transition is longer tlian two measmes, the tone on which the music " passes over " into a new key is indicated by a double note called a Bridge-note. The name of the tone in its new key is given, but the name it had in the old key is placed in small type to the left. Thus— sd 'l, &c. And in sol-faing both names are pi-onoiuiced, the fonner very briefly, thus «',/..'., r'lah, &c. Whenever the 'lYaiisi- tioii is le-is than two measiu'es long, it is deemed more convenient not to alter the 1 s, names of the notes, but simply , *_ to insert the new fe and the new Q 1 1 re when they are requned. [In the Staff notation the first-sharp Transition is denoted by a sharp on the Jiih of the old key. In keys with flats in the signature, this sharp remove appears in shape of a naUiral. See p. 14, above. When the Transition is to " the Minor" theie is a sharp (or in some flat signatures a natmal) on the i-ai/ of the old key. See the examples below.] 49c. 7?j;rt;«;)'e4-.— First-sharp Transition from Major to Blajor is chiefly used in some middle sadturo hne or passage of the tune, to "brighten it up," if the/* 54 TEANSmON : PEOPEE ANT IMPEOPEE. TEiNSMTJTATION. lies hi^h in pitch, and to ^ve it a touch- ing effect if the/e lies low. In fact,ye ia an intensified te. See p. 19. See the first two lines of "' Winchester " and " St. Anil's," below. The Transition from Minor to llinor is not much used, because the brightening effect is better obtained by modulation to the Relative Major. See " Statics," p. 92. But an example is given below. TUNE— " WINCHESTER OLD." (Major to Major.) Alison's Psalter, .m Ir :d :fe (Major to Major.) TUNE— "ST. ANN'S." ^^^^^^M Dk. Croft. g=S^=f=^ :fe Is TUNE— "ST. MATTHEW." (Minor to Minor.) 49^ TRANSITION TO THE FIRST FLAT KEY. 55 bridge-note. The new tone — " the dui- tinifiii.fhing tone" — created by first sharp transition is t, and this is placed on the right-hand side of the key-name, thus — KEY At., KEY B2.t., &c. The singer is thns told what new tone to expect. [In the 8taif Notation also, occasionally, and in long passages, an entire change of sig- nature takes place. lu these cases the Staff Notation indicates the new tones as the Tonic Sol-fa Notation does, — giving, of course, their absolute pitch instead of their key-relation.] 50. The First Flat Key.— The next form of Simple Transition is when the Fourth above the previous key- tone is taken as the new Doh. This Transition is made in melody bj Ta displacing 2'e and the introduction of a new "downward Leading-tone" above Lah. We i.'all it Transition to the First Flat Key. When this Transition moves from Minor to Minor, the old Se falls back into the place of SoJi, and a new 8e is created as a Leading-tone below Eali. As in Transition to the First Sharp Key, the tones of the old Key change their names and mental effects, and set up the old Scale Re- lation around a new Key-tone. See diagram at the side. s t t- - ta 1 506. Kntaiion.—ln the Tonic Sol -fa No- tation this transition is indicated by the bridge-tone (see above, par. 49i) when- ever it is longer than two measures, and by the "'imperfect" notation, using ta and de, whenever it is very brief. [In the Staff Notation this transition is indicated by a flat (or in sharp keys, a natui-al) on the te of the old key. When the Transition is to " the Minor," there is also a sharp, (or in some flat sig-- natures a natural) placed on the old doh. The pupil must not confuse the idea of " flj-st flat key " with that of " key of one flat." It is true that F is the first flat key to C, but C is also the first flat key to G, O to D, Et2 to B5, &c. See diagram, p. 60.] bOc. Examples. — Fiist flat Transition from Major to Major is chiefly used quite pasxiiifly, and seldom iu a cudehci', but it is also used in more pxlended forms. If the ta lies high in pitch, it ajjpeals to the ear a.< though with an outcry fur help. If low in pitch it gives a solemn efl'ect to the phrase. The ta is an intensified fah. S| d ' minor " see p. 19. See below an extract from "The Dead March in Saul," and part of the tune "Oberlin" Simple Transition of this kind, from Minor to Minor, is not much used. It would be very gloomy, having both the "flat key" and the ' efi'eots together. bOd, I'ransltion vnthout distinguishing tones. — The ear's dislike to the " tri- tone" melodically used (compare above par. 10c, lid, and lie), makes the fre- queiit repetition, or emphatic delivery of I t : 1 I s , sound like | m ; r Id of the first sharp key, and | 1 : s | f , like I m : r | d of the first flat key. Tliat is, the ear prefers to interpret them so, and to expect a little step imderneath thorn. .See" Standard Course," p. 50. If to this there is added in the Bass a move- ment "from dominant to tonic" of the new key, the feeling of transition is eon- firmed even though the " distinguishing tone " may be absent. ('Major to Major.) DEAD MARCH. I*=3t5l S^^HEg^ KEY F. PI :m |m :-.n |m.r,i>i:f .m |r Handel. if :f .s,l|f ^^^^^^^gl^^ Is .f :i»i .rni,f |m |s :- .s,l| ta .ta :ta .1 |s 56 TKAU^SITIOX ; DEPAETIIfG AND KETUBNING. " OBERLIN." Geiinan 50e. Signature of Firs! Flat Key. — ^In the signature of the first flat key (see above, par. 49A) the new " distinguishing-tone," fah, is placed on the left hand of the key named, thus f.A. 50/. Approach to Distinguishing-tone. — The easiest approach to a distinguishing- tone in Transition, or Jtloduiation, is by " step " rather than by " leap." Thus soh ;e is easier to sing than te /«, and lah s« easier than doh' «c, &c. But Tonic Sol-faists (who sing by forming a mental conception of the tone to be straek, see above, p. 18) do not find the difficulty increase ■with the increase of the interval. They see the di.'jtinguishing-tone, know its character and effect, and strike it without thinking of the interval they pass over. To those, however, who foUow a system of teaching by interval the case is different. Such phrases as " Modulation— by Seconds," " Modu- lation— by Thirds," &c., mean simply that the singer of a certain "part" approaches the distinguishing-tone by a Second, or Third, &c They do not indi- cate different sorts of Transition or Modu- lation. bOg. ^'Modulation to Dominant and Snh- dominant Keys." — Transition to the first sharp key is often called " Modulation U> the Dominant," and to the first flat key, "Modulation to the Subdominant." 51. Departing and Returning Transition.— Departing I'l-aJisitiou is that which departs from the original ajid i>riuciiml Key of the piece. Returning Transition is Transition returning to that Key. Transition returning from the First Sharp Key to the principal Key is similar to First l^lat Transition. In other words, the first Fah which occurs after a frequent use of Fe sounds like a 7'« (pronounced Taw). Transition returning from the First Flat Key is somewhat similar to First Sharp Transition. In other words, the first Te which occurs after the frequent use of Ta sounds like Fe. 516. Examples. — See a return from the first sharp key in Dr. Millar's " Rocking- ham," at the opening of the fourth line. See a return from the first flat key in " Obcrlin," above, at the end of the third line, and another in the third line of Dr. Wainwright's tune below. fFlrist Sharp and Return.) ^^iiUS ROCKINGHAM." KEY F. :d lin :f :r Id :- :m |s:-:l |s:-:s |d:-:t |l:-:s ls:f :r Im :r o.t. f.F. "•» d':- :r'ji»i':- :d' |f_^ :t Id' :- i^djf :- :m Im :r ;d jd.,r:iT) :r id LAT AND HAH. EFFECTS OF TKANSITION. 57 (First Flat and Rcturn.J " WAINWRIGHT." Dii. Wainwkight. KEV BI2. :d h •.r.mlf :- '.m |r -.d •.m Ir :s :t| Id :t, :1, ^^^^g-^^^-JirgfrptJgE^g=gg^^^|^| :8, id :- :ta,|l,:t,:d Ir.mtf m:r,d|d :t, :r Is :-.f :ni |l,.r:d :t,|d 52. Lay and Rah in Transition. — When the tone LaU changes into the llaij of the First Sharp Key (Major) it naturally rises a komma, so as to tune with the Dominant of that Key — the new Soil. It may be called, in this case, Lay. Thus, in First Sharp Key Cadences it wovdd be Lay Fe Soh. "When the tone Bay changes into Lah of the First Flat Key it is obliged to fall a komma in order to tune with the new Me above, which in the ]\Iinor Mode is its Dominant. This '' grave Buy " has already been named Itah. See pp. 7 and o9. Distinctions of this kind are made by the ear and voice instinctively, for the sake of good tune, although they ax'e not shown on instruments. 626. Notation of Lapsed Transition. — ■ In music in ■which one or other of the "parts" is s(7e«< for a considerable time it often happens that the key is changed more than once duiing the silences. In this case when the silent pai't enters again, it is necessary for the sake, of the solitnri/ singer to indicate more than one brid^rc-note. Thus, if the music had moved from C into (J and then on to D Ir, (see p. 50), and the entering tone were s, it would be written — But the chorus singer must disregard these marks, and take his « from the other " parts." Thinking of the old key after the new one is fully established only confuses the mind. Huch bridge- tones are now commonly enclosed in brackets, for example, (') I's 53. Comparison of Transition and Modulation.— Transi- tion changes the mental effects of individual tones decide.dly, but reproduces the same set of mental effects at a different pitch. Modulation, notwithstanding the introduction of Se, changes the mental effects of individual tones very little, (see above, par. 46), and, for that very reason, moves the music to a different set of mental effects. 54. Effects of Transition. — The general effect of Transition to a sharjj Key is to enliven the music. The general effect of Transition to a flat Key is to depress it. In this the Transi- tions correspond respectively with the effects of Fe and Ta. 54'>. The Act of Transmutation. — In Transition the individual tones do not assume their new mental effect until the new key is fully and clearly establi.shed ; there are generally several pul.ses during whicli reminisences of their old scale re- lation linger about the tones of the ntw key. This act of traDsmutation may be longer or shorter according as, \>y the powei'S of harmony, the Transition is made "sudden" or "gradual." 54c. Mental Effect of Completed Tran' silion. — In moviugto the first sharp key, the strong d (see above, p. 19, par. 21) becomes the desolate/, rousing r grand s, calm m sorrowful I, desolate / is changed for piercing t, grand s becomes strong d, sorrowful I changes to roasing r, and piercing ( becomes calm vi. In moving to the first flat key the changes are re* Teraed. 58 TEAJ^^SITION ; TWO REMOVES, 55. Transitional Modulation.— This is the name we give to change of Key accompanied by change of Mode. See above, par. 45. In studying this subject it is important to notice that the feeling of depression is created both by a Transition to the flat Key and by a Modulation to the Minor, and the feeling of enlivenment is created both by a Transition to the sharp Key and by a Modulation to the Major. It seems therefore a mixsical contradiction to move to a sharp key for a Minor effect, or to a flat key for a Major effect, and, except for pui-poses of imitation or passing convenience, this is rarely done. As a general rule the sharp Keys go with Modulations to the Major, and the flat Keys with Modulations to the Minor. 656. Examples. — Modvilation with transition to the first sharp key is less used ^'han with transition to the first flat key. Out see an example from Bellini's " Norma." The remove to the 'first flat key, with Modulation to the Minor, is very common. It sometimes appears in cadences, as in " Pleyel" helow, and it is very convenient for imitation phrases, higher by one step, or lower, as in the extract from Mr. Hogarth'8 time, " Kenil- worth." The transition from Minor to first-sharp Major and from Major to flrst- iiat Minor is used in imitations upward or downward a step. The transition from Minor to first-flat Major, being " contra- dictory," is little used. See for full reasons, "Musical Statics," pp. 78, 79. These " Transition- 1 Modulations" are so brief that we express them in the Tonic Sol-fa notation by " accidentals." fFirst-sharp Minor.) From "NORilA." Bellini. KEY G. Is -.s .,s Is :1 h .f|f :re.,ii.fj m : — | :d lIinor to Major the ray was really rnh, and there is a kommatic change here also. So that in these removes the whole music is raised or lowered by a komma. On instruments perfectly tuned, like Mj CoUn Brown's " Voice Harmoniimi," the effect of this raising or lowering is very good, and very suitable to the character of the Transition itself In passing from the aiajor to the !Minor of three flat removes tlie downward komma sounds like the intonation of a voice in sj-mpathy with the Minor Modulation and the flat remove. In passing from the Minor to the Major (if three sharp removes the upward komma sounds like the rising pitch of a good reader or speaker changing from gloom to hope On Mr. Bosanquet's harmonium this Transitional Modulation may be heard in perfect tune, but without the kommatic sinking. It sound's better than on the " tempered " instruments, but not so well as on the "Voice Harmonium." bid. The Tonic Minor and the Tonic Major Keys.— The Minor of the third flat remove is called the " IMinor of the same Tonic," or the " Tonic Minor Key " — iite Major Tonic Doh becoming the Minor Tonic Lah. And the Blajor of the third sharp remove is called the " Major of the same Tonic," or "Tonic Major" — Lah becoming Doh. Many musicians have tried to establish this curious theory — that the Major and Minor keys, having their Tonics at the same pitch, are the same leys. It is generally felt that a piece of music should begin and end in the same key ; and even Beethoven showed the hold this theory had on him. He would begin a piece in C Major and end it in what he would call " C Minor," or " C with the lesser third," but what we should call E2. Lah is C — the third flat remove ! How practical men should be able to conceive two things so different to be the same it is diflBcult to tmderstand. It is true that the same absolute pitch tones, in both cases, are Tonic, Dominant and Subdominant, but how totally differ- ent the mode and the effect ! Ajid how seriously changed is the scale ! But the power of theory is very great ; it even persuades otherwise intelligent men to declare that the Tonic Minor is " more nearly related " to the Major than is its Relative Minor, although (apart from kommatic alterations) it changes the me, changes the lah, and sometimes changes the le, while the Relative (except for rare melodic purposes) only changes the soh ! See above, par 45 J, and "Musical Statics," pp. 108 to no. These changes to Tonic Jlinor or Tonic Major are very difficult to e.ar and voice without instrumental accom- paniment, while the change to the Relative is very easy. This undoubted fact is a strong argument in favour of the theory —the "way of looking at things " — which we adopt. 57^. Signature of Three Removes. — In three sharp removes, as may be seen on the Extended Modulator, the distinguish- ing-tone of the first sharp key has become lah, that of the second sharp key has become me. and there is a new te. This new te is placed nearest the key-name, thus — A.t.m.l. In three flat removes, the/aA of the first flat remove has become soh, and that of the second flat remove has become doh. There is also a new fah ; and this la.st stands in the signature nearest to the key-name, thus — s.d.f.A. [In the StaflF notation the third sharp remove declares itself by shaips on soh, doh, fah of the old key, with an additional sharp on me, should there be modulation to the Minor. The third flat remove declares itself by flats on lah, me, and te of the old key. In modulation to the Minor a natural will be required on the old te (which has been flattened in the signature) to make the Se.'\ 58. Four Removes. — Wheu the music moves directly into the Fourth Sharp or the Fourth Flat Key (see Extended Modulator) we name the Transition as one of " Four Removes." Transitions of four removes, as will be seen, place the new Key about a Major Third above or below the previous Key. In other words Me becomes Doh or Doh becomes Me. The Transition of four removes is almost exclusively taken on the flat side of the and te. of the old key. The se requires no accidental, the old me answering the purpose.] The signature of four sharp removes is A.t.m.l.r.* FOUR AND MORK DISTAJIT RKMOTES. ENHAKMONIC. 63 Modulator, and then chiefly with Modulation to the Minor. The philosophical reasons for this preference are tmced in " Musical Statics," p. 99. And an analysis of the examples to be found in the " Text Book " and " Historical Specimens " may bo seen in " Construction Exercises," p. 154. The new Lnli taking up and intensifying the mournfulncss ol' the old Fall, and the new Doll, crushing down into a place near the old Se, naturally produce a very gloomy effect. 586. Signature of Four Ilemoves. — The signature of four flat removes is — r.s.d.f.A. [In the Staff notation this Transitional Modulation makes itself known by flats on the old ray, lah, me, 59. Difficult Removes. — All the removes beyond the first are difficult to sing without the aid of instruments. The gi-eater the number of changes, the greater is the difficulty of adjusting the ear and mind to the new relations. Of 32 or more possible Transitions and Transitional Modulations only nine or ten are much used. The elements which make a change of Key or Mode acceptable to the ear and easy to sing, appear to be- first, least alteration of tones ; second, a strong modal relation between the two keys — the Tonic, Dominant, or Subdominanfc (Major or Minor) of one becoming the Tonic, or Dominant, or Subdominant of the other ; and third, a clear, undoubted Leading-tone to the new Tonic. See " Musical Statics," p. 72. To secure the right performance of the third, fourth, and other removes, instrumental accompaniments should be employed. But happily these Transitions are not common, and composers who really understand the powers of the unaccom- panied voice, do not use them, except in connection with instruments. Harmony (see Book V.) shows how some of these Transitions may be made more or less easy, and through which chords they may be best entered. 60, Enharmonic Changes. — These are of three sorts — two notational, the third real. The necessity for the first two arises only in connection with the Staff Notation. First, Transitions of twelve removes. The Student's Modulator, pp. 50 and 51, will make this subject plain. When a musician finds himself in a Key with many sharps or flats in the signature, and wishes to go further in the same direction — that is, to move to other Keys with more shai-jas or more flats in their signatures — what is he to do ? He changes his signature without changing his Key-tone. Thus, if he is in the Key of FJf, and wishing to take three more sharp Ilemoves to Djf, he knows that his page would be less crowded with accidentals, that he would avoid many double sharps, and that the fingering of his pianoforte would be easier, if ho were to suppose his signature that of G% and then wi'itc at once YD Bi7, where he would have to play only three flats instead of * In the signature of four or more removes, a iig'ui'e now shows the number ol removes, thus : — 4.A. for four flat removes, and A.4. for four sharp removes. 64 TRAXSITIOX ; CHBOMATIC TOXES. PEIXCIPAI, KET. nine sharps, as in Di. Now G^ on the pianoforte is precisely the same sonnd as FjJ, althousrli in tlie true system of Keys, with just intonation, it would be more than a komma flatter. On the piano, therefore, this enharmonic change is only a change of notation, not of tone. Second, Transitional Modula- tions of nine removes, from Major to Minor, going to the flat side of the modulator, or from Minor to Major, going to the sharp side. Thiis, if instead of changing from Fit Major to G? Major, the composer were to change from the Relative Minor of F^ (which would be called D;J Minor) to E? Major, that would be maintaining the same pitch-tone for a Tonic, and would be regarded by many as the same kind of thing as twelve removes. These changes are very uncommon. More frequent in very modern music, though often associated with the first and second forms of " Enharmonic Modulation, " is the next. Third, when the tones of a chromatic chord (Bk. V, p. 344) are altered in their "intention," by being made flats of the tones above instead of sharps of the tones below, or vice versa, and so move onward in a different way, that is called an enharmonic change. On the piano, as shown above, there is no change, but with stringed instruments, or other instruments in perfect tune, there is always a difference between flat and sharp, and this is called an enharmonic (or perfect-tune) difference. See " Staff Notation," p. 31, and " Construction Exercises," p. 154. GOb. Chromatic. — The modem meaning of Ihia word cannot be properly explained without harmony. (See Book V, p '341.) It may be generally explained as referring to a flat or a sharp which does not produce Transition or Modulation, but is u-sed for mere ornamental or passing effect. When /« does not go up to the tone above, or ta does Tint go down to the t-jne below, its resolution is unexpected — chromatic. So also, when it does not go to the aceus [QOr.. AeeidenlaC. — A name sometimes used for all sharps and flats not in the principal key, more properly .or chro- matic or merely ornamental sharps and flats.] [Some define the " Chromatic Semi- tone" a.** the interval between two sounds of the same name, one of which is altered by a sharp or flat, thus — E EJ, Al2 Afl,/aA /«, soh se, te law, &c. See above, p. 9. The "Augmented" and " Diminished ' ' UnaeA. chord. \ intervals, p. 11, are called Chromatic in- 1 tervals.] 61. Relation of Keys in a Tune.— Every tune has its Pfincipal, (that is, commencing, and closing, and prevailing) Key. The other Keys we call Suhorclinate. In speaking of Subordinate Keys we have to bear in mind not merely their relation of one, two or three removes (flat or sharp) from the last Key heard, but also their more important relation to the Principal Key. Thus in " Good-bye," &c., above, p. 60, E^ i.i the Principal Key, and the Key of B^, while it is two sharp removes from its previous Key A^, is only " the first sharp Key," or the " Key of the Dominant " of the Principal Key. Again in " Lux Vitse," p. 59, Key G is two flat removes fron: A., the last Key heard, but it is simply " the first flat Key," or the " Key of the Subdominant," in relation to the Principal Key. See " Analysis of Key and Mode," Book III, pp. 88 to 90, and " Analysis of Transition," Book V, p. 313, and " How to Observe Harmony," pp. 56 and 57. THE TONIC SOL-FA COLLEGE. Incorporated 1876. EXAMINATION FOR THE INTERMEDIATE THEORY CERTIFICATE. Those who have obtained this Certificate, and subscribe 2s. 6d. per year, are registered as "Associates." As soon as an Associate proceeds to Matriculate {i.e., passes the Matriculation Examination), his previous subscriptions will be reckoned as part of his first share or shares. He will then have vote aud influence in the management of the College. BEQUIREMENT 1. — What is meant by the Ray Mode 1 Par. 40. 2.— What Is meant by the Lah Mode t Par. 40. 3. — ^Wbat are the general mental effects of the old liay and Lah modes 1 Pars. 40, 41, ilb. 4. — What are the three principal things which intensify the mental effect of par- ticular tones in a tune ? Pars. 406, 42J. 6. — a. Where do the little steps lie in the Doh mode 1—b. in the Lah mode 1—c. in the Ray mode ? Par. 40c. 6. — When singing in harmony was in- ti-oduoed, what was its effect on the old Rah and Lah modes t Par. 42. 7. — Why did the Rah mode fall into disuse ? Pars. 42 and 42d. 8.— a. In describing Modal relation, what I. — Minor Mode. is meant by the Tonic ? — 6. Dominant t— c. Subdominant 1 Pars. 42, 42c, d. 9. — What altered note is essential to the harmony of the Modem minor} Pars. 43, 436, c. 10. — Why is the sharp Seventh some- times avoided, and how ? Par. 43. 11. — What is the essential Sixth of the Minor mode, or that required by har- mony ? Par. 44. 12.— Why is the Sixth sometimes shar- pened 1 Pars. 44, 446, c. 13. — a. In the Modern minor, which is the essential Sixth ? — b. essential Seventh I— c. which is the occasional Sixth? — d. occa- sional seventh ? Pars. 43, 44. 14. — What is the essential distinction between the Major and Minor modes T Par. Ud. BEQUIREMENT II.— Scale, t6. — What name do we give to an ar- rangement or "set" of tones which are agreeable to sing upward or downward stepwise, the arrangement being the same whether it be high or low in pitch ? Par. 45. 16. — By what name do we call such a set of tones when fixed to some particular pitch 1 Pai-. 4a. Key, Mode, and Modulation. 17.— Whatdo we call that way of deal- ing with the tones of a tune which makes one tone come out as a Tonic, another aa a Dominant, another as a Subdominant, and so on ? Par. 45. 18. — a. In distinguishing between a Scale, a Key, and a Mode, to what does the word Scale refer !- 6. Key ?— c. Mode t Par. 45, 65 ^ 66 19. — How does the Modem minor in- fluence the mental effects of t« and ray f Pars. 4M, e. 20. — How does the Modem minor in- fluence the mental effects of lah and/aA? Pars. 46/, ff. 21. — How does the Modem minor in- fluence the mental effects of doh, me, soh f Pars. 466, c, h. 22. — What are the mental effects of s« and ba t Pars. 46i, 446. 23. — How do Tonic Sol-faists pitch a minor tune ? Par. 464. 24. — ^What is modulation ? Pars C7. 476, e, 486. 25. — What modulations can be made without a change of key ? Pars. 47, 476, 26. — What is the commonest case of modulation from major to relative minor! Par. 476. 27. — WTiat is the commonest case of modulation from minor to relative major ! Par. 476. 28; — What is the mental effect of pass- ing into the relative minor ? Par. i7d. NoTK. — 2^ Candidate, in preparing his answers, should here practise writing exercises Kos. 61 and 62. REQUIREMENT 29.— What is Transition 1 Par. 48. 30.— What is Cadence Transition ? Pax. 31.— What is Extended Transition t Par. 48c. 82.— What ifl Passing Transition! Par. 48c. 33. — a. In going to the first sharp key, by what interval upward or downward is the doh moved ? — 6. what tone is displaced 1 — c. what new tone is introduced ? Par. 49. 34. — In going to the first sharp key, minor to minor, what additional changes take place ? Par. 49. 35. — a. In going to the first sharp key, what is the change of mental effect on lahl—h. on mc 1—c. ontel Par. 49. 36. — Explain and name the double note by which we indicate the " passing over" from one key into another. By what name do we call the tone thus represented ! Pars. 496, /. 37. — In what case do we avoid this double note, and how ? Par. 496. 38. — What is the distinction between III. — Transition. the 'pei-fect" and "imperfect" notations of transition 1 Par. 49e. 39. — How is first sharp transition from major to major chiefly used, and what is the mental effect of its distinguishing tone ! Par. 49c. 40. — Why is first sharp transition from minor to minor little used ? Par. 49c. 41. — a. In going to the first flat key, by what interval upward or downward does the doh move ? — 6. what tone is displaced ! — c.what new tone is introduced ? Par. 50. 42. — In going from the first flat key, minor to minor, what additional changes are there 1 Par. 50. 43. — In going to the first flat key, what is the change of mental effect on ray t— on lah f — on me f Par. 50. 44.— How is first flat transition, majoi to major, chiefly used, and what is the mental effect of its distinguishing tone ? Par. 50c. 45. — WTiat is the, distinction between departing and returning transition ? P^r. 51. Note. — The Candidate, in preparing his answers, should here practise writing exerei»et ms. 63, 64, 65. REftUIREMENT IV.- 46. — What Ls Transitional Modulation ? Par. 65. 47. — In considering transitions to sharp keys and to flat keys, and comparing them with modulations to the major and K) the minor, what relations do we find oetween these different transitions and these different modulations 1 In other words, how do they conunonly go to- getiaer ! Par. 55. 48. — Why are transitional modulations from major to first sharp minor, and from minor to first flat major, but little used ? Par. 556. 49. — What is the favo\irite transitional modulation of one remove, and how does it promote imitation phrases l Par. 566. 50. — What is meant by transition of f;wo removes % Bar. 66. ■Transitional Modulation. 51. — a. In passing into the secondtsharp key, by what interval upward or down- ward is the doh moved ! — 6. what tones are displaced 1 — c. what new tones are intro- duced, and of these, which is the " last new sharp," or that* which did not occur in the /rsi sharp remove ? See p. 50 and par. 566. 52. — How is'the second sharp remove chiefly used, and how can its effect be intensified 1 Par. 566. 63. — Repeat the system of flat keys. Ditto sharp keys, pp. 15, 50, par. 47/. 54. — a. In passing into the second flat key, by what interval upward or downward is the doh moved ? — 6. what tones are dis- placed t — c.whatnew tones are introduced, and of these, which is the " last new flatt See p. 60 and par. 666. 67 66.— What is oscillating transition ! Par. 66c. 66. — What is meant by transition of three removes 1 Par. 67. ST. — a. In transitional modulation from major to third flat minor, by what Laterval upward or downward is the doh moved ?^ b. what tones are displaced by "essential" minor tones V — c. what new tones are in- troduced, and of these, which is the "last new flat V See p. 50 and par. 57. 58. — a. In transitional modulation from minor to third sharp major, by what in- terval upward or downward is the doh Note. — TOe Candidate, in preparing writing exercises. moved ? — b. what tones are displaced !— c. what new tones are introduced, and of these, which is the " last new sharp 1" See p. 50 and par. 57. 59. — What is meant by the Tonic minor and the Tonic major keys ? Par. 57 d. 60. — a. In transitional modulation from major to fourth flat minor, by what in- terval upward or downward is the doh moved ? — b. what tones are displaced by " essential " minor tones ? — c. what new tones are introduced, and of these, which is the last new flat ? See p. 50 and par. 58. his answers, should here practise the rest of tht. REQUIREMENT V. 61. — Write clearly, without help, 'and entirely from memory, in the Tonic Sol-fa notation, an example of Cadence modu- lation to the relative minor ? 62. — Write, as above, an example of Extended modulation from minor to relative major. 63. — Write, as above, an example of Cadence transition to the first sharp key. 64. — Write, as above, an example of Extended transition to the first sharp key. 65. — Write, as above, an example of Passing transition to the first flat key. -Writing Exercises. 66. — Write, as above, an example of Transitional modulation from major to first flat minor. 67. — Write, as above, an example of Transition to the second sharp key major to major. 68. — Write, as above, an example of Transitional modulation from minor to second sharp major. 69.— Write, as above, an example of Oscillating transition. 70. — Write, as above, an example of Transitional modulation to the Tonic minor, and back again. Note. — These exercises are simply intended to make the Candidate recognize and verify in notation the transitions and modulations he has studied. The handwriting must be clear and careful ; the pulses must be equal, and the time, as well as the bridge- tones and signatures, must be exactly written. It will be better for the Candidate to^ad examples of each case in other books, but he is quite at liberty to use the examples in his own book. He may even during the examination refer to the following list of them, in order to refresh his memory. But he must on no account look at the book while he is writing the exercise chosen. He is recommended to practise himself in copying each of the following tunes. Ist, three times from the book, and then twice from memory, observing carefully what point of transition or modulation the example 'Uustrates, and tracing each case upon the Modulator, p. 50. Let him be careful to study the signatures, pars. 49h, 50e, 56rf, 57e. "Jerusalem," p. 49 — "Bride's," p. 49— " Winchester " or "Anne's," p. 54 — " Rockingham," p. 56 — 3rd line of " Oberlin," p. 56, or 3rd line of " Wainwright," p. 57— 3rd line of " Pleyel," p. 58, or " Kenilworth," p. 58— air of the chorale "Nassau" or "Seaford," p. 59— " Calvary," p. 59— 2nd and 3rd lines of " Christchurch," p.60, or air of " Good-bye," p. 60—" Three Fishers," 2nd and 3rd line, and 1st meas. of 4th line. D. 61. NOTE. — Candidates for the foregoing examination must have previously obtained the Elementary Theory Certificate, or be pro- pared to take the examination for both Elementary and Intermediata at the same tima. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. The following examples will show the kind of questions which are asked of Pupil Teachers during theii' apprenticeship, and also of First and Second Year's Students in Ti-aining Schools. The Syllabus for admission into Training Schools is the revision of the Pupil Teachers' work. First Year Pupil Teachers (Tonic Sol-fa). 1. dl s TO s, If d s'. Write this pas- an octave higher. 2. Deiine (a) a pulse ; (6) a mea-sure. 3. Write down the notes of the Stan- dard Scale of Pitch. 4. Give examples of a 3-pulse measure, a 4-pulse measure, and a 2-pulse measure. 5. What is a scale ? Distinguish be- tween key and scale. 6. Name these intervals : — r-d', d-l, si-d,/-t, i-i;/-t,. :-.f :m ;i»i .r :s, Write this an octave lower, doubling the value of each note and rest. 8. How are mental effects modified ? 9. Write down all the minor 7ths in the Common Scale. 10. What do you understand by ac- cent ? How many kinds of accent marks are used in Tonic Sol-fa ! 11. What is meant by key F at the beginning of a piece of music? How would you pitch it (given C) ? 8 :- |1 .8 If.ni ;r.d \t id : — |-.r :d \m :r |d Copy this. Over each note write its length in pulses or fractions of a pulse, and under each note its time-name. 13. How many perfect fifths are there in the Common Scale 1 Name them. 14. Give the major scale relation of m, I, s, d (as Tonic, &c.). 15. Neime the notes of the upper and lower tetrachords resjiectively in the Common Scale. 16. Write six 4-pulse measures (secon- dary f oi-m) and fill them with notes. Second Year Pupil Teachers (Tonic Sol-fa). 1. What do you understand by " first 8hai-p transition ' " 2. s t I s r m ft I s. Which note in this pas.sage indicates transition % What kind ? 3. m sr f {\)m {1)s fe s. Write this passage twice in the better method, first making the change on m, then on s. 4. Write (a) two 6-pul.se measures; 6) two 9-pulse measures. ■1,L1:1 : ..1:1 l.J: Over these notes write their lengths, and under their time-names. (68) EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 69 6. Name these mter\'als : — m-fe, se-lf, ra-f, d-la, r-se, d-ta. How many of them are chromatic intervals ? 7. How is first flat transition indicated in the imperfect method X Give an example. 8. Write the following passage twice in the perfect method, making the changes on the notes indicated : — m s m {\)l d' (2) 7-' ta ta I. :1 nMl.l. .1 |1 .1 :1 .1,1|1,1.1 What measure is this ? Rewrite it, dou- bling the value of each note and rest. 10. .« rmdr mfm. He-write this in the imperfect method, calling the first note d. 11. Name the notes of (a) doh chord, (ft) soh chord, (c) fah chord. 12. Give the mental elfects of the strong tones of the scale. 13. sr, nl|, df^ nt,. Which of these bridge - notes indicate first sharp and which first flat transition \ 14. r In m d. Above each of these notes write a major 3rd, and below a minor 3rd. 15. M. 60, twice. Ul:-:l|l:-:-| :1 :1 | :1 : il Write this in 2-pulse measm-e, using the same number of measures. 16. Explain M. 60, twice. Third Year Pupil Teachers (Tonic Sol-faJ. 1. What does (a) a major 3rd, (ft) a minor 7th, become by inversion "> Give examples. 2. Write the minor scale in its three forms, properly spacing the steps. 3. \ |d.,r:in .f :s .d'll .f :n,r. :d .t, ) Ud :- :- II Write this an octave higher, in 6-pulse measure, using the same niunber of measures. 4. What is the essential difi'erence between a major and a minor scale ? 5. Why are/ and se called the essential 6th and 7th 1 .,111,1.- :1 :- .1 I 11.1,1 :1,1.1 :1,1.1,1|1 .1 : .1 11 Above these notes wiite their lengths ? below, their time-names. 7. In the minor scale which is the tonic, and which the leading-tone ? 8. d r Si li s] d. In which of these three keys would this passage sound highest— key Bl2, F, A ? Thrice. :l :1 |1 :- 1 11 :-:- :1 11 :-:-|l :1 Over each note write its fractional value in beats. 10. Distinguish between transition and modulation. 11. What is meant by the fo/j mode. 12. s I dl f r t, d. Give the actual pitch of these notes in (a) key G, (b) in key Eb. 13. Give the meaning of these terms— Lento, mf, mp, presto, ad lib., dim., accelerando. 14. Which is the tritone, (a.) in the major scale, (ft) in the minor scale? 15. Which of these notes is the high- est, and which the lowest in pitch ? (l) d in key Bfe, (2) t in key C, (3) I in key D, (4) r in key Alt. Fourth Year Pupil Teachers (Tonic Sol-fa). 1. Write down the notes of the com- mon scale. To the left of each note write its scale relation, to the right its mental effect. 2. Give two examples of {a) an aug- mented 2nd, (ft) diminished 5th, (c) aug- mented 6th, (d) major 7th. 3 . How would you define such interrals as/'/e, r-ra, s-sef 4. What is meant by syncopation J Give an example. 6. Convert these intervals into ohro- matic inteiTfals by altering one note in each — d-r, fe-l, r-f, d-l. 6. s 1 1, df r m d> d. Give the pitch of these notes, (a) in key Eil, (ft) in key A. 7. "1^, ix, \m, fd, t^m, fet,. Which of these bridge -notes indicate first sharp and which tu'st flat transition 3 70 FIBST TEAS STTTDENTS (tONIC SOL-FA). 8. "Write do'wii the occasional 6th and the essential 7th of the minor scale. 9. Given C, how would you pitch the following keys :— G, D, F, B ? 10. Name these intervals — a-dei,de'-ma, la-ta, de-t,/e-l. 11. Key F. 8 1 d' r'd' fe 1 fe 1 8 1 8 £ r 8 d What kind of transition is here indicated ? Write the passage in the perfect method, making the changes at the notes marked. 12. Do the notes /« and ta always indicate change of key t Illustrate your answer. 13. Key E. m t, r' B d Give the actvial pitch of tiie highest and lowest notes. 14. "UTiat is the average comx>ass (a) of alto voices, [b] of tenor voices? 15. M. 100, thi-ice. 1 :1 :1 :1 :1 |1 :1 : I : : |1 :_:-|-:_: Transpose this into 3-pulse mea.sure. 16. Write down the tonic, dominant, mediant, and leading-tone of the minor scale. First Year Students (Tonic Sol-fa). 1. Key D. mrelBfefesd'arfmrd Write this in the perfect or better method. 2. Of what three chorda is the Common Scale constructed ? 3. Define (a) interval, (6) pitch, (c) major mode, {d) distingui-shing tone. 4. m-s,d-l.r-t,J\-m,t,-d,li-s. Change the minor intervals into major, and the major into minor by the chromatic altera- tion of one note in each. 6. * • ssnlfrfetlslfmBrd In writing this in the perfect method, why would it be wrong to make the first change at the note I and the return change at the note m f 6. I IS -f ;r .,m |f ,1.8,f:i»i ) H :-,in.f,l|8 .t, :d i| ll Over each note write its value in pulses, and under, its time-name. 7. Write the rhythm in Question 6 an octave lower, doubling the %'alue of each note. 8. Give the mental effects of te, fah, lah, ray. 9. How many kinds of accent marks are used in Tonic Sol-fa t Illustrate your answer. 10. Give the ItaUan equivalents of {a) gradually slower, (6) return to the original time, (c) rei)eat from the sign, (d) very loud, («) in a close gliding manner. 11. Given C, how would you pitch keys C, E, G, Efe ? Give i reason for your method in each case. 12. u 1.1,1 :U :U I .cl:l.-.l:l.-.lj J|1.U:-.U:1 II Transcribe this into 9-pulse measure, using the same number of measures. 13. Name these intervals, and give their quality: — ma-d\, /-t, r-se, de-ma, f-rei, s-ma'. 14. m, la, d, I, fe, mn. Above each of these notes write a major 3rd. 15. Between which notes (a) of the major scale, (h) of the minor scale, is the tritone f oimd 2 16. Write an example of syncopation, using 3-pulse measure. 17. In Tonic Sol-fa, when are [a) brackets or braces, (6) double bars, used ? 18. What is the pitch of lah in keys D, F, EI2, C, respectively i. 19. Place English equivalents against each of the following : — (1) Allegro, (2) lento, (3) piano, (4) cres., (6) dim., (6) forte. 20. le-t, d-r, m-fe, m,a-d\ d-ta, r-m. Make each of these into a chromatic interval, by the chromatic alteration of one note in each. 21. Give the Sol-fa names for chro- matic [i.e., sharpened and flattened) notes of the scale. 22. Show (by drawing a modulator) the relation of the first sharp key [G] to the principal key [C] 23. Write a passage of not more than 20 notes (without time). Commence in key D ; make a ti-an.sition to key G ; return transition to key D. 24. Write a time test in 4-pulse measuie suitable for Division TV. [No notes less than J-pulse; no silences less than 1-pulse.] EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 71 Second Vear Students (Tonic Sol-fa). 1. What are the mental effects of the notes s, r, t, fe, ta 1 2. Key D. A.t. f.D. d s ni 1 s "1, t, d 8, t| 1, S| "Is B f r m A.t., f .D. What technical name is given to t and f1 Write the passage again, beginning in key A. Does any change take place in octave marks ! If so, why ? 3. Write the Ink mode in its thi-ee forms, properly spacing the steps. 4. (a) "What is a pulse ? (A) What is a measme ? .5. KeyBI>. Mm .s :d Id' :- .r' |d' Ci'iticise this from a singer's point of view. 6. Given C, how would you pitch the following keys— At?, Bt?, E!?, Dfe X Give a reason for your method in each case. 7. Key G {Lah is E) . Of what signifi- cance are the words bracketed ? If it were key Eb, what change would be made in the pitch in the bracket I 8. Write two 2-pulse measures, three 3-pulse measures, four 4-pulse measiu-es, all secondary form. 9. Describe, or show by diagram, how you would beat 2-pulse, 3-pulse, 4-pulse, and 6-pulse measure. 10. How are tenor and bass parts wi-itten with regard to octave marks, and why ! ^i;U:l<-,l:l,-.lil :- : « .1 , il )\ Transcribe this into 9-pulse measure, using the same number of measures. l,ia:l,lr:lJr| 12. Write an exercise in transition (key A) suitable for Division IV. [One remove only.] 13. How is minor mode indicated in key signatures ? 14. Draw a modulator of three columns, showing the relation of first sharp and first flat transition to the centre or prin- cipal key. 15. State the meanings of the following signs :— S', ^, D.C., D.S. 16. Key Eb. # • slsd'mstatald'stalmflst r'd' Ee- write tins psssage in the perfect method, changing at the notes indicated. 17. What principles should regulate the choice of breathing places in a school- song simg to words. 18. Give the average compass of each of the four voices : — Bass, tenor, contralto, soprano. 19. What will be the pitch of doh, when lah is respectively CJf, E, G, D ? 20. Write a timeless test in key G (minor mode) suitable for Division IV [l se I, not/, ba, or s.] 21. Name the following intervals: — re-d', /-le,d^-f!e, la^-s, de-la, l\-f. [Note. — l-le, chromatic semitone.] 22. Of what value are the hand-signs to teachers ? 23. Write notes of a lesson on the teaching of the " First Step." .,f :r .t, II 1,8 .f,iTi:-,r .d,t||d Write tliis an octave lower, doubling the value of each note and rest. First Year Pupil Teachers (Staff Notation). 1. Write the scale of C, marking the places where the semitones fall. 2. How do you teU the length of a note in staff notation ? In what key is this passage ? Re-write it, placing the key - signature at the beginning. 4. Write the scale of F major in the bass clef. Mark the tritone in the scale. J / c ^ Name each of these signs. 6. In notation, how is a minim rest distinguished from a semibreve rest ? Illustrate your answer. Name the intervals formed by these pairs of notes. 72 SECONB YEAE PTTPIL TEACHERS (stAFf). 8. Write (a) three bars in 3-4 time, lb) four bars in 4-4 time. 9. Give the relative values of these notes, regarding a crotchet as one :— I (T) i J 10. "Write down the notes of the Stan- dard Scale of Ktch. 11. In key C give the scale relation of E, B, F, G, D, A (as "Tonic," &c.). "Write this an octave lower, using bass clef, doubling the value of each note and rest. 13. "What is a scale ! Distinguish be- tween key and scale. Over each note write its length in beats; under each note its pitch-name. Second Year Pupil Teachers (Staff Notation). 1. "Write the signatures for the follow- ing keys (treble clef) :— Efe, B, D, E. 2. In singing this passage, name the actual intervals sung. 3. "Write down the tritones in the following scales : — F, D, BO, A. 4. Name the following intervals : — 5. Define a diatonic interval. 6. Add one rest at the end of each of the following bars to complete it : — IpU-J^^Mg. 7. Give an example from the scale of D of (a) major 3rd, (6) diminished 5th, (c) minor 7th, (d) perfect 4th. Ee-write this, halving the value of each note and rest. 9. Write the scales of A and AS, inserting the sharps and flats where they occur. 10. Ee-write the following passage in 3-4 time : — 12. Complete the following as scales of E and Di2 respectively :^ the Third Year Pupil Teachers (Staff Notation). 1. Write down the scale of Eb and mark (a) the leading-tone, (6) tonic, (c) sub- mediant, (d) subdominant. 2. How many perfect 4ths are there in the scale of B. Name the exception. 3. 1 — -TTZ MH — ^ [— Write this passage in the treble clef with- out altering its pitch. 4. Ee-write the following signatures, placing the sharps and flats in the cus- tomary order and position, and state for what major keys they stand : — 5. Explain briefly the following : — (a) stnccnto, (6) J = M. 70, (c) triple time, (d) adnf/in, (e) Dal Se/fno. 6. Write down all the major 3rds in the scale of E major. EXAMINATION QTTESTIONS. 73 7. Name the following intervals : 8. "Write (in the treble clef) the signa- ture and the ascending scale of G minor, using the minor 6th and major 7th. 9. Write on the following stave a bar in each kind of time indicated by the time-signature : — 10. Write (in the bass clef) the ascend- ing scale of D minor, usin^ the major 6th and major 7th, and placing the sharps and flats where they occur : — 11. i^^^^^^^m What scale is this 1 Which is the tritone Fourth Year Pupil Teachers (Staff Notation). 1. Define (a) diatonic interval (&) chromatic interval, giving examples. Write this passage a minor 3rd higher in pitch. 3. Show on the bass stave the range of bass and tenor voices. 4. Name these intervals : — 5. In what scale or key is the following passage 1 Give a reason for your answer ! — 6. Make each of the following bars complete in 3-4 time : — 7. Write, using the treble clef (a) the scale of F major, (6) the scale of D minor, using the minor 6th and major 7th. 8. Place the time-signature before each of the following ; — -ue-E^-jzp:t=a 9. Show, on the treble staff, the average compass of the treble and con- tralto voice. Mark the chromatic intervals, and say in what scale each of the diatonic intervals occurs. .11. ^ 311 ^^ Complete each of these bars (by notes or rests) as common time. ^^ Bt^^ Of what is this passage an example ? First Year Students (Staff Notation). 1. Write the following in the bass clef to sound two octaves lower : — [-^•1 r \r .f^g^=^ ^^^m^ 2. Transpose the following passage into the key of C : — .3. Give a list of simple triple time- signatures, and write two bars of notes in 6-8 time. 74 SECOND TEAR STUDENTS (bTATp). 4. Explain the following terms (a) ad lit., (ft) a tempo, (c) piu forte, {d) dolce. 5. Transcribe the followmg into 3-4 time, halving the value of each note and rest. pni^ErrrTff^ ^J^ 6. Name these inter\als :— Gf-B, D2-F, C-Df, GS-Af, Fi-B, E-H2. 7. State the key of each of the follow- ing passages, giving a reason in each case : — 4^^v fr '^' -'li^tJEEJE 8. Over each of the following write the name of the major scale or key, and under each the name of the minor scale or key of which it is the signature : — ^ 5:2= M n- 9. To each of these notes, add a a perfect 5th : — 1^8^ tfe=B:J^=H: «*5=i== ^ '1227- 10. Write an example of syncopation in 4-4 time. 11. Underneath each of the following notes write its corresponding rest : — 12. Write two bars in each kind ^of time, indicated by the time-signatures : — 13. Write a musical passage of not more than 20 notes (minims). Commence in key G, change into key D, return to key G. 14. Bar the following in accordance with the time-signatures : — n I =P}= 1.5. Complete the following as the scale of B major : — 16. Write, in 3-4 time, a time-test suitable for Division IV. (No notes less than half beat ; no silences leas than one beat). Second Year Students (Staff Notation). 1. State the meanings of the following terms : — (a) Un poco crescendo, [b] s/or- zando, (c) sotto voce, (d) triplet, (e) andante. 2. E«-write the lollowing pas-sage in 3-2 time, doubling the value of each note and rest: — 3. Transpose the following a major 3rd lower, i.e., from A major to F major :— sB^ga 4. What exercises would you use to get sweetness and good tone in class- singing] 5. Add to each of the following bars a note, or notes, which will make it a complete bar of a-4 time : — 6. Write a sight-test in transition for Division IV in the key of D major, con- taining accidentals to rai.se the 4th degree (approached from the 3rd or 5th) and to flatten the 7th (approached by the octave) 7. Transpose this into the key of EI. METHOD OF FINDING THE PITCH. YS 8. In what scale or key is the following passage, and why ?— =Pii»^ i^eifsf^Si 9. Write the following in the treble clef to sound two octaves higher : — 10. Add time signatures to the fol- lowing : — 11. Write out the system of shai-p keys. 12. Make the following into the scale of B minor, using the major 6th and major 7th : — f 13. Write above each of these signa- tures the name of the major key, and below, the name of the minor key it represents : — 14. Name the intervals fonnedby these paii-s of notes :— ES-FJ, Gff-A, Cf-E2, F-B, D5-F, At2-B2. 15. Write the signatures (bass clef) of the following keys : — D minor, HI major, FJf minor, A minor, and F minor. 16. Place above each note the interval indicated:— Aug. 5th. Maj. 3rd. Aug. 4th. hyf 1 =— -€9 ^ — tltT^^ Aug. 2nd. Maj. 3rd. Min. 3rd. m 1 tt'n \~~^ i «/ •«>- GENERAL METHOD FOR FINDING THE PITCH OF ANY NOTE IN TONIC SOL-FA. Bi =di E?i=di = t = 1 = s = f = n = r The key-tone {e.g., E!?, B) is always the pitch of the unmarked Doh, therefore opposite the pitch-tone write d (see accom- panying diagram). Next, complete the scale upwards, regardless of sharps or flats, ahv ays putting an octave mark above the first 0 reached, and of course to each note above it. Next fill in the sharps or flats in the scale, as the case may be. The result is the pitch of d r PI f S ltd'. Example.— Key E!? n t| f r d' Actual Pitch G D A) F Et>i KeyB n t, f r di Actual Pitch DJf'AJt Ei C+JiBi Note.— Only in the case of key C will the octave-marks in both notations coincide. Eb = d Ff=s El =f DSi=n CJfi^r B =d 76 WATS OF BEATING TIME. WAYS OF BEATING TIME. TWO BEATS IN A MEASURE THREE BEATS i. FOUR BEATS SIX BEATS ^ EIGHT BEATS oi ^ TWELVE BEATS MUSICAL THEORY. BOOK III. MUSICAL FORM. Structural Relations. 62. Form. — Musical Form is opposed to musical uucon- ncctedness and iucongruity. It is the putting together of musical material — rhythmic, melodic, and harmonic — so as to produce in the mind a feeling that each part of the tone-picture belongs to the other parts and to the whole. This secures unity, which is the essential thing in Form. But Unity requires the addition of Beauty and Strength to make it acceptable. For the sake of Beauty some variety of effect should mingle with the features of similarity. And for the sake of Strength there should be some principal point, on which the tune seems concentrated, and which dwells in the memory as its chief characteristic. Thus the three great elements of a good Musical Form are — Unity, Variety, Point. 626. Illustrations. — Bricks, mortar, and wood lying about a field look incongruous and unrelated, till the builder comes. He puts them together in proper measure, proportion, and place, and they assume a symmetrical and beautiful Form, well and plainly adapted to its purpose. This adaptation to a purpose is a principal Bource of Unity, and the adaptation of Forms to different purposes is also a Erincipal cause of Variety in Form. As in ouses, so in tunes. An artist's portfolio full of " studies " in colour, in light and shade, in land.seape and in portrait, seems very "heterogeneous and disorderly;" but the artist takes a selection of these, groups them about some central point of attraction, adapts the colouring to set off this main object and gives symmetry and variety to the whole. In other words, out of many separate and independent materials he makes a picture. A good tune may well be called a tone-picture. "Com- position," says Mr. Ruskin, "means, liter- ally and simply, putting several things together, so as to make one thing out of them ; the nature and goodness of which they all have a share in producing. Thus a musician composes an air, by putting notes together in certain relations ; a poet composes a poem, by putting thoughts and words in pleasant order ; and a painter a picture, by putting thoughts, forms, and colours ia pleasant order. In all these (77) 78 MUSICAL FOKM STRUCTXTEAL AXD COirPLETE. cases, observe, an intended unity must be the result of composition. A paviour can- not be said to compose the heap of stones which he empties from his cart, nor the Bower the handi ul of seed which he scatters from his hand. It is the essence of com- position that everything should be in a determined place, perform an intended part, andact, in that part, advantageously for everything that is connected with it. Composition, understood in this pure sense, is the type, in the arts of mankind of the Providential government of the world. It is an exhibition, in the order given to notes, orcolotirs, or forms, of the advantage of perfect fellowship , discipline, and contentment. . . In a good poem, each word and thought enhances the value of those which precede and follow it ; and every syllable has a loveliness which de- pends not so much on its abstract sound as on its position. Look at the same word in a dictionrj^, and you will hardly recognise it. Much more in a great pic- ture ; every line and colovu- is so arranged as to advantage the rest. None are in- essential, however slight ; and none are independent, however forcible. It is not enough that they truly represent natxxral objects; but they must fit into certain places, and gather into certain harmon- ious groups : so that, for instance, the red chimney of a cottage is not merely set ia its place as a chimney, but that it may affect, in a certain way pleasurable to the eye, the pieces of green or blue in other parts of the picture."* S2c. Musical Inconiiruily . — The contrast to Musical Form — mtusical incongmity — can easily be illustrated by singing con- secutively a few well-known musical phrases, which are tmdoubtedly good in themselves, but having no relation, only serve to thrust each other out of the memory. They only make a medley — no tune. " God save the Queen.'' KBT A. Id :d :r It, :-.d:r Im :m :f "OldlOOth." :-.r:d Id :t, |1, ;8, TalUs' Chant. Im :r Im : — :- :d II :- 'Bedford. ;d |r :s If :— \m " See, the conquering." :— Is :m .,f Is :d ^^^^f=^i^ ^^^^m m w :ti=fc ^i d :r im ; — fi2d. Necessity of /his Study for Singers and Players. — A musical composition ia like an outline-picture. The colour, the light, the stvle has to be giuen it by the performer. The same piece in the hands of different performers presents as great a difference as there is between an out- line-picture smeared with ink and the same picture set off with bright lights, delicate shades, and harmonious colour- ing. So much of an artist is the musical performer! So absolutely necessary is it that he should understand the work he performs. It i.^ true that if a per-, former is gifted with original genius and native taste, he may without rules and by a glorious instinct exhibit the work of the master in proper proportion and beauty. It is not, however, for these gifted -ones we write, but for those who have the genius of close attention and bard work. They must study in order to do justice to the works they interpret. 63. Structural Relations and Complete Forms.— The stndy of Mnsical Form naturally divides itself into two parts. Fiist, the study of those rhythmic, melodic, and harmonic relations which tend to create unity, variety, and point in music, and these we may call Struchwal Relations. Second, the study and comparison of those completed wholes, the structure of which is already known and accepted, and these we may caE Complete Formg. *The advanced student may compare with this Herr Pauer's "three Uwb," page 181, below. RELATIONS OF MEASURE AND SPEED. CADENCES. 79 636. niustratinn. — The study of bones and muscles, and the way in which they at each other, and help in making up the oomplete man, would be the study of Structural Kelation, and the study of the various human races with their adapta- tion to the various climates they inhabit, would be the study of Complete Forms. 64. Principal Structural Relations.— It would be im- possible to describe all those relations, of one part of a tune with another, which give it unity, give it variety, or give it point. But those which require special attention in an elementary work are — 1st. Relations of Measure and Speed ; 2nd. Relations of Rhythmical Proportion ; 3rd. Relations of Key and Mode ; 4th. Relations of Cadences ; oth. Relations of Response in Melody, Harmony, and Rhythm ; 6th. Development of Emotional Expression and Point ; 7th. Relations of Accompanimenfc and other Ornaments. 65. Relations of Measure and Speed. — There is commonly a unity in the kind of measure and the speed of movement throughout a tune. The exceptions are only for special effects. The commonest case is when some middle strain assumes a livelier style, and makes the change from four-pulse to nix-pulse measure. In this case, however, there is still a relationship ; the main accents move at the same rate. The strong and medium accents of the six-pulse measure strike at the same pace as the strong and medium accents of the four-pulse measure, or else they strike at the pace of every accent of the four-pulse measure. See "Swiftly," Reporter 10; "Awake," Reporter 62; "Here in cool grot," Reporter 12; "Blow, blow," p. 168, below; "When winds," Reporter 82. In music of a dramatic character the changes may be even more frequent and more irregular, but the general rule holds good — that there should be always some unity, some relation, of measure and speed throughout a tune. 66. Cadences and Sections. — A Cadence means literally a fall in the voice. But both in elocution and in music it has come to mean any inflection or succession of tones — whether rising or falling — which indicates a close, and gives more or less of rest to the mind of the listener. A Section is a portion of a tune " cut off" from the rest by one of these Cadences. 666. Illustration. — Although some slight knowledge of harmony is necessary in order to distinguish and characterise the cadences properly, yet melody alone by its form and shaping is commonly suffi- cient to mark out their places to the ear. Thus, in the tune "Melcombe," p. 80, if we listen to the air only, we can recognise cadences on the eighth, sixteenth, twenty- fourth, and last tones, and these Cadences " out" the tune into four Sections. 66c. The Word " Oadence." — Many writers confine the meaning of this word to those closes of musical lines in which the music either passes from Dominant to Tonic, which they call " perfect caden- ces," or " full closes," or from Tonic to Dominant, which they call " imperfect cadences," or "half closes." But as musical lines are often brought to a close by means of other chords, it is surely better to extend the meaning of the word cadence to any form of melodic or chordal progression which marks out the close of a musical line. 80 TUITES FOE ANAXTSrS. KEY G. •.-.ri|m m s : .-.d|d d d : :-.8|8 8 8 •.-.d|d d m • :d ir r IT : :d |1, 1, se, • :m |1, 1, t, :1, If, f, n, • ,[uo E f |m : VEL r t, |d : - t, 8 |R : — f r Id : - s, -.r Id : — r -.80, |1, : — 1, -.tn jm : — r -.in, |1, :- f. A. S. Sullivan. By per. -.r jr r f PI jr : -.t,|t, t. t, t, It, : -.f If f r m |f : -.8,18, S| s, s. |s, : - |1, t. r -.d|d : :- |1. B, t. -.d|d : ■- If f f -.mlm : T 1"^' s. 8, -.d|d : TTTNES FOR ANALT8IB. 81 CANNONS. G. V. Handel. t, |m se, |1| m, |d d :s,.,t, n, :s,.,f, 1^ :d,,r la :ni,.,r, 1, 1, f d :r \m m, :s, |3| m ; r | d d, :t2 |d, :-.f r :1, s, d t, f, s, r, [IB.] r . m : d 1 1 , se, :1, |1| r -.m \m ts :l2 h, :t, I, — me. 1, — -.r d — :ni, Is — I V l-"-J III N 1 KEY D. CROFT'S. s d' t |d^ s 1 :- 1- s Kl s f im i>i f :- 1- r S m f |S d' d' :- 1- t d d r |in d f, :- 1- s, m :s d :d d' :s d -.m, A.t. r.nl, pd :df, f.D. t| :S| f, :r, r m :- 1- s m f, s, :— 1- m, s, •t| d :- 1- d d ■r, d, :- 1- d, d, \'-^ t d' s |1 d' t 1 |se se r m m If m s m \m m s s d' Id' d' r' d' |t t 3 d d If, 1, t| d.r \m n r :r d — 1- d :t, d — 1- 1 :s.f m — 1- f, :s, d — 1- — I- s d f d r Id t, Id m d 1 s.f \m ^|d [lA.l [IB.] TUXES FOR AXALTSIS. J[nB.]( I A J. J. ^.^ J J. J. -• — • 1 z^ — n-^ — 1 ^ W KE-r A. MULLER. J. D. MVLLER. Harmonised by Haveroal I -A :d. 1, :t, |d r m :— 1- s d :3 If m r : - 1- s t, f, :f, |m, s, s, :- 1- s, m, ;s |1, s. s :- 1- s, s, d :r Id t^ d :- 1- t, d :d Id d t, :-!- t, r f, :r, 11, s, d :- 1- s, 1, :m, If, d, s, :- !- E.t. 1^, r, -) ll. 8, ;— 1- s, d :ta,|l, :s, l,:- |fe, — 8, :- 1- m, m, ;s, |f, :m r:-i |r — t, :-|- d d :d |d :d i ■- |r s :— 1 — d d, :m, If, :d f, :- f.A. :''r s :f \m •.r m — 1- d : m m |S f m — 1 d d 1, 11^, f, d — 1 :r m r |ni C.t. ' r t d' 1 ;t, d r Id ml s • 3 1 :s s 3 |s df. r' m' 1 • ^1 d t, Id ',r s d' 1 f.F. f •.m If :3 PI 1 :» r d .t, Id :r m — 1 :'''t 1 •.t |i • S s — 1 :ds, 1, :s, |1. :t, d — ! :d' 3 :-.l |S :f m ■i tf.m r :d~it, :d :d It, ji- ;r :s d a :t,.l, :li It, ;1, lt, :s, d :r :r',d' :s :d' t f l.t r' :d'.t d' - — 1 :s s — — d'.r' :m'.f' m' — - f :s d — — f .mtr lTd:t, r .ni;f fTrs, TXrNES FOE ANALTSIS. I[IB.] I r r ' I n ^ZT-r -r I. Lj^ r KEvr Eij. SHARON. Dr. Boyce. m d s m r f f m 1 s t d' f PI r — d d r d A ti r d d d f m r d t, — s m s s 1 s s 3 f s f 3 3 s s — d d t, d f, 8, d d f m r d t, d s, - TUNFS FOK ANALYSIS. 85 KBY D. REAY. :d m f |s d' t - Id' m :d d t, Id m r - Id d •m s s |S s s — |s s :d d r im d s f im d Samuel Reay. Bj' per. s -.m |d d :t, |d s : B \m m, :s, |1| A.t. :sd :''s. :sd f.D :«,r :ni |f :s :3, |1, :s, :d |d :r :d |1, :t, m |1 d |d s If d If m — |r d f S| - If, m, 1, d - It, d d d — js, 1, f, n I r : r s, |f,.ni,:f, d |d~~:t, d, |s, :s :s f - \n r s f \m f r - 1- :de r - It, t, d t, id d + — 1— :s 1 - |s s s s |S 1 s _ l._ :ni r - |s f m r Id f. s. — 1— m : f I s d :t, |d s :s |s d :r |i!vna),OT "germ of musical thought'' out of which all the rest has sprung. Thus they might say that the first two tones of "Melcombe" were the "motivo," and these imitfited by oblique motion a stpp lower give the next two tones, and these imitated by direct motion a step lower, the next two, and these a Sixth higher the last two. Other writers, re- grarding the " motivo " as something long enough to fill a measure, speak of such "germs" as the above under the name of" members of motives." These writers, taking the " motive " as the unit of melody, try to build up melody thus— Two or three Motives equal one Section ; two Sections equal one Phrase ; two Phrases equal one Period ; and so on. See Marx and Lobe. So many exceptions, however, have to be made, that this kind of "Table" becomes of no practical use ; and the de- velopment of the smaller "germs " before named is so arbitrary and imaginative as to be of no service. Itis impossible to main- tain that musical composers think in such fractional pieces as these. We do not know of any reliable dividers of music but the CndeHC-s, which " cut oflf" the Sections. The Section we regard as the unit of melodic form, just as we count the Pulse the tmit of time. In analysing, it is best to look at the piece ns a who'e, and then ask one's self where it best divides into two parts or into three parts. Having got these main divisions of the piece, we may ask, Are they each Periods containing two or more Sections, or Strains contain- ing two or more Periods. 68. Rhythmical Proportions of Tunes. — As a general rule, it IS desirable that Sections should be of equal duration. This equality of duration connects them one -with the other. The ear having recognised a Cadence at the end of so many measures, naturally expects another Cadence at the end of so many more measures, and so on. 686. Illustration. — In the kindred art of painting every composition must have its proper proportions. There must be proportions of colour, and proportions of form. One side of a tree must balance with the other. In the drawing of a numan fitrure the proportions of, one part with another are very delicately and carefully preserved, and every proportion, or relation of size, which one part bears to another helps to bind all the parts to- ^fether as one whole. It is the same with a well-proportioned tune. Mr. Ruskin desciibes symmetry or proportion as "the balance of pai-ts or masses in nearly equal opposition." He shows that symmetry in Nature is not "foi-mal or accurate." There is always some difference between the corresponding parts. "An approxi- mation to accurate symmetry is only per- mitted ill animals, because their Tuotions secure pei-petual difference between the balancing parts. . . . All grace and power in the human form result from the interference of motion and life with .syn- metry, and from the reconciliation of its balance with its changefulness ." Like the animals, mtisic too possesses the beauty and variety of motion, and this motion allows music to have a more exact sym- metry— a more formal balance of parts. 68c. Kxamplen. — In dance and march music this balance of Sections, and with them of Periods is carefully preserved, because in these " forms" the measures are necessarily very marked, and well nfjticed by the ear. In hjTnn-tunes, when sung slowly, or with interruptions of the melody for " lining out " the words, there is n(j need of " Symmetiy of Sec- tions." brtCiiu.se it could not be heard. But when sung quickly, in the modem IRKEGULAEITIE8. ANALYSIS. 87 Btyle, the length of one part of a melody is easily compared with that of another ; the plain structure of the tuue makes the measures distinct ; and the popular in- stinct demands an equal balance of lines. See the treatment of the different metres, and the correspondence of this rhythmical balance with elocutional effects, in " Con- struction Exercises." pp. 78, 80, 82. Thus in Common Metre, the elocutional " pau.ses of emphasis" at the end of the second and fourth lines are filled up in the music by a lengthening of the last tone. This is often done instinctively by organist, precentor, and people, even when the music-book directs otherwise. In gond Short Metre verses there i.s a " pause of emphasis " at the end of thn first and second lines, and in Short Metre mu.sic these pauses are, or should be, filled up, by a lengthening of the line, to make it "balance" with the third line. In quick (not in heavy) congregational sing- ing the observance of these riiles is both easy and satisfactory to the ear. In the tune "Cannons," above, p 81, there is a well-balanced division into four Sections of two Measures each, though in the middle there is a shifting of the place of the ac- cent which pushes the second half of the tune forward. Thus, contrary to the general rule, the part of a measure at the end of the tune does not exactly " fit in " with the part of a measure with which it begins. In " Evelyn," p. SO, the last line, though different in rhythm, is made to correspond in length with the other three. In " Miiller," p. 82, notice how the third and seventh lines are lengthened out to match those which precede them. When "Croft's," -p. H\, issxuag quic'dy itis neces- sarily thrown into four-pulse measure (as here written) with lengthened tones at the endings of the first foui- lines. In the emphasis at the end of its short lines it resembles Short Metre tunes. Songs as well as hymn-tunes commonly obey the same law. &M, Irregularities. — But in music which is not " applied " either to the movementp of the human feet, or to the measui-es of poetry, but is "pure" and free to follow the fancy, this uniformity and balance of the Sections is not so care- fully preserved. Irregularities arise in the following ways : — A Section may be- gin with the last weak pulse of one measure .and it may end on the first strong pulse of another measure, and either beginning or ending may be addi- tinnal to the proper length of the Section. Or in a similar way, by omissions the Section may be shortened. The proper length of the sections in "Cannons," p. 81, is a Duain. But in order to meet the rhythmic change in the opening of third line from Trochaic to Iambic, we have, to make Ib a pulse le.ss than a Duain, and IIb a pulse more. In the tune "Pilgrimage," p. 134, below, the proper length of the Section is a four- pulse Duain. But to meet the impatient Trochaic entry of the fifth line, we have to make IIb one pulse less than tlie right measure, and in order to fill up the mea- sure before commencing the tune, again we are obliged to make HIb one pulse longer. In " Aspiration," p. 136, the same thing occmvs, the theft of a pulse being from Ib, and the filling in of a pulse being at the end of IIIb. Or the composer may pause to repeat a favourite phrase or a favourite Cadence. Thus in " La Virginella," p. 189, below, the Sec- tions are all regular Quadrains till we come to the instrumental close, where the composer is so pleased with the pretty play of his first two measures that he lingers upon and repeats them. Or the ending tone of one Section may be used as the beginning of another, thus making the Sections oyeWry). See p. 217. Or runs, "passages," interludes, and codas mag be added wi'hout bring counted as part of the regular Sectional-structure of the piece. See p. 118. Or the style of the music may be such as does not distinctly mark the measures or separate the musi- cal ideas (as in much litrht music and in fugal pieces) and then both com- poser and hearer may become indifferent to the Balance of Sections. Neverthe- less, with these allowances, the propor- tionate duration of Sections, Phrases, and Periods is well observed even in such free compositions as the string quartets of Haydn, and the pianoforte Sonatas of Mcaart and Beethoven. (39. Analysis of Rhythmical Proportion.— A Section which consists of two Measures, we call a Duaui; a Section of three Measures, a Triain; a Section of four Measures, a Qaddrain ; a Section of five Measures, a Quintain; a Section of six Measures, a Sextain; a Section of seven Measures, a Septain ; a Section of eis^ht Measures, an Odaki. A Period which consists of two Sections, we call a Two-sec. (or Two-section) Period; a Period of three Sections, a Three-sec. Period, and so on. In writing analyses we use large lioman figures to 88 KELATIONS OF KEY AND MODK. represent the Period, and " small capitals " to represent the Section. I means the fii'st Period, and Ia the first Section of the first Period. "We place a comma after the sign for a Section, a semicolon at the end of the signs for a Period, a semicolon and horizontal stroke at the close of a Strain, and a very distinct full- stop at the end of the Tune, thus — Ia, Ib; IIa, IIb;— IIIa, IIIb; IVa, IVb. 69J. Illustrations. — Thus the tune "llelcombe" p. 80, has four sections of two measures each, or four duains. Any good singer -CT-ould mark these divisions by a stron? accent on each closing note, and if we listen again to such a singer we shall commonly hear him singing each section so as to divide it into two equal portions or phrases. In psalm-tunes, the words do not always Buit the phrasing dictated by the music, and the musical " phrasing" has to yield to that of the words. Thus a "four- pulse duain' set to the words "No word is sung more sweet than this," would be divided into 4 pulses -|- 4, but set to the words " Abiding sweetness of the heart," it would be phrased as 5 4- 3. But in writing analyses we always con- sider the music alone, unless told to do otherwise. A silent pulse at tibe end of a line should be counted in the phrases. Melcomhe, p. 80 — Ia ^pulse Duain 4 pis. + 4 , IIa Duain 4 + 4 , Cannons, p. 81 — Ia 4-pulse Duain 3 + 5 , IIa Duain 4^ + 3|* Crofts, p. 81— Ia 4-pulse Duain 4 + 4 , IIa Duain 4 + 4 , IIIa Duain 1+4 Ib Duain 4 + 4 IIb Duain 4 + 4 Ib Duain 3 + 4 IIb Duain 5+4 Ib Duain 4 + 4 IIr Duain 4 + 4 IIIb Duain 4 + 4 70. Relations of Key and Mode. — Another bond of unity in a tune is the fact of its beginning and ending in the same Key and Mode, all its transitions and modulations bearing a close relation to the principal Key. For definitions of " Key " and " Mode," see above. Book II, pp. 45, 57, 58, and 64. 706. Examples and Exceptions. — The tunes above, not selected for this pur- pose, will, however, serve for illustration. The tune "Cannons," p. 81, begins and ends in key Bt>, minor mode ; the rest of these tunes are in the major mode, and end in the same key in which they begin. It should, however, be mentioned that in- strumental writers like Beethoven, and even some modem vocal writers, regard the major and minor "of the same Tonic" as relative keys, and beginning a piece in one they sometimes end it in the other. See above, Book IT, p. 62, and " How to Observe," il. 156, p. 88. But we venture to think that in the common ear this practice creates duality of feeling — not unity. If we study the relation of new keys in these tunes to the principal key, we shall find that the first sharp key is introduced nine times, the relitive minor 4 times, the relative major once, the first flat minor twice, and the second flat "major to major" once. Let the pupil verify for himself each of these assertions. ' If we were analysing the full harmony we shonld disregard the half pulses, and say 4 + 4. RELATION TO LAST KKT. RECENT MUSIC. 89 70e. Relation to the Last Key. — Keys and modes are i-elated to one ariother as well as to the principal key of a piece, and both relations are concerned in pro- moting unity and variety in a tune. If we study the relations of a new key with the key last heard, we shall find that three points claim attention— 7? r*<, the number of tones of the old key altered to make the new one ; second, the connec- tion between the Tonics, Dominants, and Subdominants, of the two keys or modes ; and third, the degree of clearness with which the leading-tone of the new key stands out. 1st, Every change of tone dis- turbs the ear, and makes it restless until a new key-relationship is established, hence, other things being equal, those keys and modes are most closely related which require the least change of tones. 2nd, The Dominant and Subdominant are connected with their Tonic by the firm in- terval of a fifth above or below, and a new key built upon one of these is therefore very closely related to the original Tonic. If the new Tonic is the bond of connnec- tion (that is, springs from the old Domin- ant or Subdominant) that bond is closer than if only the new Dominant or Sub- dominant unite themselves with the old key. 3rd, It is a point of great importance in ti'ansition or modulation that the new Tonic should be quickly recognised by the ear, and a clearly-marked leading- tone greatly assists this process, especially as new keys and modes are chiefly intro- duced by their Dominant chords, in which the " leading-tone " holds an important place. This tone comes out most clearly when it is a new tone, and when there is no other new tone competing with it in the new Dominant chord. Some weight must also be attached to the consideration that the mental effect of the minor is congenial with aflat remove, and the mental effect of the major with that of a sharp remove. See Book II. p. 58. This subject is fully and carefully investigated in "Musical Statics," pp. 91 to 99. Out of thirty -four transitions, modulations, and transitional modulations there analysed, the fifteen in the following Table arc those most used. The Table also shows the qualUiet of the change in each case. TRANSITIONS, MODULATIONS, & TRANSITIONAL MODULATIONS, IN RELATION TO THE LAST KEY OR MODE. MAJOR. 1st Tones Changed. 2nd. Modal Bond. 3rd. Leading- tone. 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 New Tonic=01d Dominant. None. New Tonic=01d Subdom. New Subdom. =01d Dom. New Dom.=01d Subdom. New Subdom. =01d Dom. New Tonic =^01d Tonic. None. New Tomc=01d Subdom. None. New Dom.=bld Subdom. New Tonic=01d Tonic. None. New Tonic=01d Dominant. New Tonie=OId Subdom. Clear To First Flat Major Not New To First Flat IVIinor To Second Flat Major Clear. To Third Flat Minor Conflicting. Not New. To Fourth Flat Minor MINOR. To First Sharp Major To Third Sharp Major Clear. To First Flat Major Not New. Conflicting. Clear. To First Flat Minor lOd. An Analysis of Recent Music. — The following analysis will show how far the principles thus announced are con-" soiously or unconsciously adopted by composers. It is fair to say that, as a general rule, whatever is mostusti by th» 90 KELATION TO PfiENCrPAX KEY. ANALYSIS. iftsicomposersisbest. The books analysed were the " Presbyterian Hynmal," edited by Mr. Henry Smart ; " Church Hymns," edited by Dr. Sullivan ; the " Hymnary," edited by Mr Bamby; and the choru.ses of Mendelssohn's " St. Paul." The niun- ber of transitions, modulations, and transitional modulations found in these books f including "returns" as ■well as "departures," and mere "passing " and cadence changes as well as more " ex- tended" ones), was 5,540 The extent to which the law of " fewest changes " rules transitions and modulations appears from the fact that eighty per cent of these change only one tone, sixteen per cent change two tones, and only /our per cent three tone.s. The extent to which the law of " best bond " is followed appears from our finding that sixty per cent have a bond between the Tonic, Dominant, or Subdominant of the old key and the Tonic of the new, while seven per cent are similarly bonded to the Dominant of the new key, and four to the Subdominant. The rest are nearly all changes to the Relative — major or minor — which are in other respects very good. The extent to which thi^ law of a "clear leading-tone" is obeyed becomes manifest when we discover thaX fiftji-one per cent of the new Dominant chords in these cases have the leading-tone both new and clear, fnrty- fnur per cent have it clear but not new, and onlyj^t"! per cent have it conflicting. The chief exception is the change to the first sharp minor, which is commonly taken "gradually" so as to avoid the conflict of the two new tones. The ex- tent to which the sharp rernoves are reckoned coneenial to the major mode, and the flat to the minor, appears very markedly when we analyse two, three, or four removes. Seventy-five per cent of these removes obey the law of congenial- ity, and twenty-five per cent disobey it. Tii the case of only one remove this law does not i-ule so absolutely. In the cases r>f modulation as well as transition of the first remove, sixty-four per cent obey the law. and thirly-six per cent contradict it. The chief exception in this case also arises from the change to the first sharp minor. 70e. Relatio' to the Principal Key. — It is important that the music in passing from kev to key should not wander so far that "its relation to the principal key would be lost. For the sake of unity, when we come back to the principal kej we should feel that it is the principal key to which we have come back, and be able to welcome it as such. Many of the more distant removes in transition and tran- sitional modulation are not so distant from the principal key as they are from the la.st key. It is so with the oscillating transition, p. 60, above, and with many transitions of two. three, and four re- moves. See p. 64, above. 70/". Rflation to P/'ic<.— Much of the importance of a transition or modulation arises from the place which it holds in the rhythmic structure of the tune. Thus the close of a period is more important than the close of a section. It marks a larger and more important division of a tune, and a transition or modulation placed there is all the more effective. For the sake of variety and life {without pro- ducing a too foreiffn effect) the first sharp key (or in minor tunes, the relative major) very commonly appears at the end of the first period, or in the middle of the tune. See " Melcombe," p 80; "Cannons," p. 81; "M(iller,"p. 82; "Bach," p. 83; and " Eeay," p. 85. If not the first sharp key, then the principal key holds that important place, which is seldom yielded to any other. See "Evelyn," p. 80, and "Life let us cherish, "p 101. Butthespirit and genius of some tunes carries the enthu- siasm over the first period into the besrin- ninsf of the second, and such tunes often place the first sharp key there. See "Inno- cents," p. 8.S, and "Sharon," p. 84. Taking the first hundred two-period tunes in the " Presbyterian Hymnal," forty-six were found to have the first sharp key, and sfvenieen the principal key, at the close of the first period, and twenty used the first sharp key to close the first secti-m of the second period, six were unclassified, and elevn were without either transition or modulation But many tunes divide them- selves into three parts — three periods. Of the«e the larger part (like " Crofts," p. 81. and "See the conquering hero." p. 101— not "Life let us cherish," p. 101) use the first sharp key on the second period. Taking the first twenty three- period tunes in the same collection we find that eleven thus place the key of the Dominant (or in minors, the relative major), three carry it over to thebeginning of the third period, three have neither transition nor modulation, and three re- main unclassed. 71. Analysis of Key and Mode. — In analysis exercises it is useful to show — 1) the "place at which the change occurs, 2) the nature of the change, aud 3) the extent of the change. This is best doae by describing the Key and Mode of each Section thus : — ANALT8IS OP KET AND MODE. CHOKDS. 91 Melcombe. Key F. P. 80— Ia Principal Key , lu First Sharp Key, cadeniial; IIa Priu., & min. of 1st 17 cad., lis. Principal • Gannons. Key Bl7. Lahis G. P. 81 — Ia Prin. , lu Relative Major, extended \ IIa Prin. , IIu Prin. • Sharon. Key Eb. P. 84— Ia Prin. , Ib Prin. ; IIa First Sharp, cadential, IIb Prin. • Miiller. Key A. P. 82— Ia Prin. , lis Prin. , Ic 1st J ext. ; IIa Prin. , IIb 1st # ext. , lie Prin., & Rel. Min. cad., IId Prin. • Crofts. Key D. P. 81— Ia Prin. , Ib Prin. ; IIa 1st % ext. , IIb 1st J, ext. ; IIIa Prin., & Rel. Min., ext. , IIIb Rel. Min., & Prin., ead. . Beay. Key D. P. 85— Ia Prin. , Ib Prin. IIa 1st if, ext. , IIb 1st J exl. IIIa Prin., Min. of 1st t? Pass., Prin., IIIb Prin. IYa Prin., 1st J Pass., Prin. , IVb Prin. Bach. Key F. P. 83— Ia Prin. , Ib Prin IIa Prin., & 1st % ext. , IIb 1st $, ext. IIIa Prin. , IIIb Rel. Min., ext. IVAPrin. , IVb Prin. 72. Harmonic Cadences. — By the addition of Harmony to Melody, Cadences are made both more distinct and more varied. Thus the first Cadence of " Melcombe," p. 80, looking at the Melody alone, may be regarded as a Cadence in the first sharp key, or an what is called a " Plagal " Cadence in the original key, and the third Cadence as one in the first flat key, or as one on the Second of the original key, or as one on the Fourth of that key, — and Melody alone does not tell us the real character of these 92 CADENCES TONIC, OPEN, DOMINANT, Cadences. But Harmony defijies them. The follomng hints on Harmony will be sufficient to enable even the young student ta analyse Cadences. 726. Chords. — It is necessary to explain that a "chord" is a number of tones (generally three) sounding together ; that the chords which sound best are those in which the tones coidd be placed in ' 'Thirds' ' (d to m or wi to s) one above the other (thus the last chord of the first line in "Melcombe." p. 80, can be read upwards in close " Thirds," as d m s, and the last chord of the third line as r / I) ; that chords are named by the tone which stands first or lowest when they are placed in this "close" position, the names being written in capital letters, thus — D, R, &c. ; that when their "first" tone (or root) is lowest they are said to be in the a position, when their " Third " is lowest, in the b position, when their "Fifth" is lowest, in the c position, as the last chord of "Melcombe" is Da or simply D, the fifth-last Db, and the third-last Dc, and that when another tone is introduced into a three-fold chord — as for example, a seventh (counting from the root) — this is indicated by high-placed figures before the chord- name, thus ■'S, called " seven-soh," or ■*D, called "four-doh." These added tones dissonate {i.<'., strike against a tone which stands next them in the scale) with one or more of the proper chord-tones, and as a rule, the ear is not satisfied till they find consonance by going down a step in the next chord, lasten to 'Sa in the close of " Evelyn," p. 80, and "Be in the cadence of "Evelyn" I\. See also *8 at the end of " Reay," p. 85, and ^R6 in the first section of "Sharon," p. 84. 73. Classification of Cadences. — Cadences can afPect the structure and building up of a tune in three ways — first, by ehowing relationsliip to the principal key and mode of the tune in various manners; second, by conveying to the ear a sense of Conclusiveness in various degrees ; and third, by awakening a feeling of Expectancy more or less decided. The following is a description of the jDrincipal cadences. 736. Tonic Cadences. — Cadences on the Tonic of the principal key and mode — that is, cadences ending in the major mode on the chord D, or in the minor mode on the chord L — are both the most decisive of the key and mode, and the most satisfying to the ear as the conclu- eion of a line. But they vary in degrees of conclusiveness. The D, or the " minor (or minor mode) £" cadences, in the a position for the bass, and with the Tonic also in the melody, are the most sense-concluding and key-deciding of aU cadences. See the last cadences in " Melcombe," above, p. 80; of " Cannons," p. 81 ; of "Evelyn," p. 80; of " Croft," p. 81 ; of "MuUer," p. 82; of "Bach," p. 83; of "Sharon," p. 84; and of "Reay," p. 85. These cadences are so conclusive that they are seldom used except at the end of a tunc. See, however, "Bach," p. 83, and "Croft," p. 81, in the latter of which the frequent coming to a decided end and beginning again produces a decidedly jerky and heavy effect. 73c. "Open" Tonic Cndi-nc's.—Vfhm the, composer desires to keep free from too definite a conclusion and yet to estab- lish the Tonic, especially in the first lines of tunes, he alters these Tonic cadences either in the bass or the melody. Some- times he puts them in the 6 position, as D6 (an "imperfect" cadence. See "Hojv to Observe," p. 16). See "Reay," p. 85. But more frequently he places the Third or Fifth of the chord in the melody in- stead of the First. When the Fifth is in the melody we say that the chord has its Fifth " crowning ;" we call it the chord of " D Fifth " or "minor L Fifth," and write it D'^ or L^. This usually occurs with the Plagal cadence. See par. 735^. When the Third is in the melody we speak of the chord as " D Third," or " minor L Third," and write it D^ or L^. See cases in "Evelyn," p. 80; " Croft,' p. 81; "MUller," p. 82; "Bach," p. &3, &c. These are called "Semi-perfect '' cadences, " How to Observe," p. 8 Another way of lessening the conclusive nesa of these and the next class of cadences is by allowing the last chord to be opprodched in the bass stepvnse instead of by the usual bold leap. See cases in "Evelyn," p. 80, and "Ooft," p. 81. In analysis exercises we indi- cate stepwise cadences by a dot .over the chord-name. Thus we write D for what we call a stepwise D cadence." Any Tonic cadence which does not move from TRA.N3ITI0NAX, SFPEETONIC AND SUBMED., PLAaAL AND SUBDOM 93 Dominant to Tonic, both chonis being in the a position and the Tonic having its first crowning (rf in the air) we may call an Open Tonic Cadence. The " Plagal " cadence mentioned below is also used for the same purpose as these " open " cadences. It should also be noticed that the con- clusiveness of a cadence depends very much upon the place it holds in the rhythmical proportions of the tune. Thus it has been said that the third line of " God save the Queen," although it has a Tonic cadence, is not very conclusive, because an ending would not be naturally expected in that place. If the line were expanded to four measures its cadence would be more conclusive, because the ear had already recognised a cadence at the end of f oiu- measiu-es, and " the ear remembers and expects." 73(1. Dominant Cadences. — Cadences on the Doninant of the principal key and mode — that is, cadences ending in the major mode on the chord S, and in the minor mode on the chord ^M — are, like the Tonic cadences, decisive of the key and mode. They will, moreover, satisfy the ear for the conclusion of some early line in the tune, but instead of conveying the idea of final conclusiveness, they dis- tinctly express that of expectancy. See examples in "Miiller," p. 82 ; '"Cannons," p. 81; "Croft," p. 81; and "Reay," p. 85. It will be noticed that in many of these Dom. cadences the Dominant is not always preceded immediately by the Tonic, which is the strongest form of the Dominant cadence ; in several of these cases the bass moves — as in some Tonic cadences — stepwise, thus — :/ | * .or : Z \ s instead oi -.d \s\, and in the minor :/ I TO or : r | m instead oi -.1 \m. The Dominant cadences also occur in the b position, and they frequently have the Fifth or Third in the air, like the Tonic cadences. In harmony analysis they are indicated in the same way. Thus S^ means " S lifth," or a cadence on S with its Fifth in the highest part (see " Miil- ler," p. 82, Ib), and seJ/^ means " aej/ third," or a cadence on sej/ with its Third in the highest paii;. See "Cannons," p. 81, IIa. Thus also seMh means .a cadence on seJU" with se in the bass, and S means a cadence on the chord S ap- proached in the bass stepwise. See " Cannons," p. 81, Ib. 73«. Transitional and Modulating Ca- dences.— Next in frequency to the Tonic and Dominant cadences are those which move into a closely-related key or into another mode. The commonest are the " first sharp key " cadences. See " Mel- combe," p 80; "Miiller," p. 82; "Bach." p. 83. This kind of cadence enlivens the music, giving us an ejjpectaut key, which is more startling to the ear than an ex- pectant chord. In the minor mods the change which corresponds vriththis is not a cadence going into the first sharp key minor, but a cadence in the relative major (see "Cannons," p. 81), for that change in a minor tune has the same brightening effect which a fii'st sharp key cadence has in a major tune. Cadences passing into the first flat key are very rare and very ineffective, because they do not produce any feeling of expectancy. Some persons have harmonised the first line of the tune "French " with a cadence in the first flat key, which is very dreary. In major tunes cadences in the relative minor are not uncommon. They are sometimes on the Tonic of the relative minor, as in " Evelyn," p. 80, and sometimes on its Dominant, as in "Miiller," p. 82. Occasionally the relative minor of the first flat key is employed for cadences. See "Melcombe," p. 80. These minor cadences are very touching, and full of a subdued expectancy. 73/. Supertonic and Suhmediant Cadences. — Cadences on R in the major are super- tonic cadences ; they are not much used, and the corresponding minor T not at all. See " How to Observe Har- mony," p. 27. They express expectancy and dissatisfaction strongly but not very agreeably. The proper Submediaut cadences move from the Tonic to the Submediant — that is D to L in the major, and i to i*'in the minor. They are not much used, having no very marked effect. But a form of Submediant cadence, in which the Dominant, not the Tonic, goes to the submediant (that is, 8 to L, not D to L, or «eJ/ to F, not L to F) is very much employed. We call it the Surprise Cadence. The Dominant being heard, the ear is naturally led to expect the Tonic, and is " surprised" to receive the sad and touching submediant instead. This cadence is also called the " interrupted " cadence. See " How to Observe Harmony," p. 34. Tig. Plagal and Subdominant Cadences. — Plagal cadences are cadences on the Tonic which are not preceded by the Dominant but by the Subdominant. In the major they are not S to D but F to D, and in the minor they are not ^^M to L but R to L. The effect of this cadence is vague and grand, but neither very con- clusive nor very expectant. It is very useful in harmonising the air | ? -l \ s when the composer does not desire to go into the first sharp key, especially at the end of the first line of a tune. Sea " Melcombe," p. 80 ; " Bach," p. 83 ; and "Innocents," p 88. It may be noticed that this cadence is always most effective when the key has been strongly decided by the Dominant or Dominant-seventh irq- medJately before. In this last respect the 94 EELATIONS OP CABEXCB, AXD THEIE EFFECT. Snbdominant cadences are similar to the Flagyl ; they end on F in the major, and /? In the minor, and sound best when the key is decided. They are not much em- ployed for important cadences, havinar no very useful characteristics. The rea-son why the Supertonic, Submediant, and Subdominaut cadences are little used is that they do not declare the key or mode in any marked way, and the common ear requires that at the endings of lines the key should be left very definite. 73A. Weak-puUe Cadenas. — These are cadences which end on the weak pulse instead of the strong, thus giving empha- sis to what we may call the process of eadendng. See a Tonic weak-pulse ca- dence in " Sharon," p. 84, Ia ; see "How to Observe," pp. 14, 19, 25, 28. Similar cadences to these are made on the medium pulse. See '"Reay," p. 85. We call them "medium-pulse cadences." They dUler Irom such as " Bach," IIa. I'ij. Dissonant Cadences. — These are closes of lines in which the ear is startled by a dissonance where it had expected a consonant rest. See the 'S cadence in " Evelyn," p. 80. See " How to Observe Haimony," p. 53, il. 97. Such cadences are very emphatically expectant, because the dissonance requires a resolution on the very first chord of the next line. They are sometimes called "avoided" cadences. The ending of the line is not really avoided. It is the old form of cadence which is avoided ; the ending of the line is really marker by the dissonance. 74. Relations of Cadences. — It is obviously desirable that the most conchisive form of the Tonic Cadence should be employed at the end of a tune. In close relation to this should stand ths mMdle Cadence of a tune. And subordinate Cadences of various kinds lead up to these principal points. A certain Key and Mode is first given out as the " home " of the ear, and to that home, after all its wanderings, the mind •will expect a safe return. By this " return " the Cadences contribute to Uniiy ; by the way in which they " lead up " to the principal cadential points, they show i)es^i<7n, which also is unity; and by their many diEPerences of Key, Mode, and effect, they introduce Variety. 746. Illustrations. — TVe propose, in describing the relations of different parts of tunes, always to describe the relations between "Strains" {if the tune is long j^nongh to be divided into ' 'Strains ' ' ) first ; ^ext, the relations between "Periods" imthin the " Strains ;" and next, relations between the "Sections" withiii each of the " Periods." It will be convenient to place the following mark before observa- tions on "Strains" (Str.), the following before observations on " Periods" (Pds.j, and the following before observations on "Sections" (Sec.) The tune " Melcombe," p. 80, does not divide into " Strains." (Pds.) Its second Cadence brings to a close the first Period, and is marked by that united decision and expectancy which is heard in the Tonic of the first sharp key. It contrasts well with the Cadence at the end of the second Period. (Sec.) Within the first Period, the tirst Section prepares the mind by the solemnity of the Plagal Cadence for the keenness of the first sharp Cadence in the second Section. This Plagal Cadence, Hke other "open" Cadences, leaves the key and mode well decided at the begin- ning of a tune, without closing the> sense and feeling of the music too soon. With- in the second Period, the Cadence of its A Section is allowed to wander away from the key and mode all the more freely be- cause it is so surely coming back again in the final Cadence of the tune. It goes into the minor of the Subdominaut. See Extended Modulator, Book n., p. 50. "Evelyn," p. 80, (Pds.) closes its first Period, not with the Dominant, nor with the key of the Dominant, but with the more startling Dominant Seventh, con- trasting strongly with the Tonic Cadence at the close. (Sec.) Within the first Period its A Cadence keeps the key decided, but the sense " open," by means of a D" chord. Within the second Period, the A Section closes not so far from the key as "ilelcombe," but with the " subdued ex- pectancy " of the relative minor. "Cannons," p. 81, (Pds.) divides into two at the Dominant Cadence of the relative major, which contrasts almost too vividly wilJi the minor Tonic at the end. (Sec) In Ia both the mode and the key are decided by a Dominant Cadence, which prepares tlie mind for the bold contrast in Is. In rLLTJSTHA.TIONS OP OABEXCK RELATION. ANALTRTS. 95 ITa the Donunant Cadence of the original mode ag-ain asserts itself, and properly pjvpiires for the Tonio Cadence iii IIb. If we examine a six-line tune like " Croft's," p. 81, we notice that it con- sists of three Periods. (Pds.) The firstand last Periods end in the Tonic of tlie origi- nal key, and tlie second in the Tonic of the Dominant key. A more modem writer would probably have avoided a full close at the end of the first Period. These premature closes produce a some- what jerlcy and disconnected effect. (Sec. ) The subordinate Sections in each Period are kept well " open," havinf» a F Cadence, ILa an open D Cadence in the first sharp key, and IHa a relative minor Cadence. " MiiUer," p. 82, is a seven-]ine tune, but on trying' it over you easily see that it divides into two parts — two Periods — at the end of the third line. (Pds.) The long' cadence tones of the first Period are in the Tonic of the Dominant key, and con- trast ■with the Tonio of the principal key at the close of the second Period. (Sec.) Within the first Period an "open " Tonic Cadence, followed by a Dominant Ca- dence, lead up to the Dominant key Cadence ; and within the second Period a Subdominant Cadence, a Dominant key Cadence, and a relative minor Dominant Cadence (giving: ^eat conti-asts of effect) lead up to the Tonic Cadence. The man- ner in which the subordinate Cadences of this tune prepare the ear for the principal Cadences is an interesting' study. "Innocents," p. 83, (Pds.) contrasts the close of its first Period with that of its second, by means of the Dominant Ca- dence. (Sec.) Within the first Period the " open " Plagal Cadence is a quiet pre- paration for the brigliter S Cadence which follows. Within the second Period, to prepare for the final D Cadence, we have the brig'htening effect in IIa of the sD Cadence. This is a simple illustration of the way in which the second Period con- trasts with the first, not only in its B but also in its A Section, for Ia and IIa treat the same melody with contrast of harmony and Cadence. The tune "Bach," p. 83, is like two short metre tunes. It is here piinted with equal lines and proper balance of rhythm. (Str. ) But it is not two tunes, for the close of what would be the first tune is purposely made expectant. Although it ends ■with a Tonic Cadence, it is not the Tonic of the original key, but of the first shaip. The mitd i»nnot rest there ; it feels the mu.sic incomplete. Wo must call this, therefore, not the first tune, but the fu'st Strain. The two Sti'ains are strongly contrasted in character niid Ca- dence. (Pds.) Within the first Strain tli€ first Period decides the key — the key tc be changed in the second Period — almost too strongly for modem tastes. But this decisiveness has its apology in giving occasion for its emphatic repetition at the close of the whole tune. Within the second Strain the first Period closes (like the first Section of the second Period in " Evelyn, ' p. 80) in the Tonic of the relative minor, which conti-asts very effectively with the closing Cadence of the second Period. The subordinate Cadences Ia, niA, and TVa are all "open;"FD, 1)3, and l5ft. And Ha has a Z)omrnan( Ca- dence of the fU'st sharp key feRS, leading restlessly onwards and upwards into Iln. " Sharon," p. 84, (Pds.) closes istPeriod ■with a Dominant Cadence " expecting " the final Tonic of the second Period. (Sec.) In the first Period a weak-pulse Tonic Cadence leads up to the Dominant, and in the second Period a weak -pulse first sharp Cadence leads up to the Tonic. The time " Reay," p. 85, is Uke " Bach," p. 83, in this respect, that it is prevented from being two times by the fu-st Strain being made to close in the key of the Dominant. (Str.) The close of the first strain well prepares the mind for the close of the second Strain, having four chords the same, only in the fu'st shai-p key instead of the original key. (Pds.) With- in the first Strain we have the Dominant Cadence at the close of Is conti'asting with the Dominant key cadence at the close of IIb. In the second Strain we have again the Dominant Cadence at the end of rUB contrasting with the Tonic Ca- • dence at the end of IVb. (Sec.) The sTibordinate Cadences are manifestly •subordinate. We have the S cadence of Ib introduced by the " medium-pulse T>b Cadence "of Ia ; the SD Cadence of IIb introduced by a " mediiun-pulse 'S Ca- dence " of IIa ; the S Cadence of IIIb introduced by the "medium-pulse, Mh Cadence " (in which the m sounds like a dissonance) of II Ia ; and tlie final Tonio Cadence of IVb introduced by the " medium-pulse D6 Cadence" of IVa. 75. Analysis of Cadences. — In analysing Cadences it is important to show the manner in which they contrast with, or lead up to, one another. Therefore we write the Cadences of one period in one line, and those of another in the next, and so on. We employ also the Roman numerals, the letters, and the stopg to indicate th"^ Strains, Periods, and Sections, as in par. 69, above 96 CADENCE ANALYSIS. EESPOXSE. The writing of such analysis is of great value, because ft assists the student to concentrate his attention and thought on the Kelation of Cadences. 756. Examples. — By comparing the following analyses with, the tunes them- selves, and with our explanation above, the student will learn how to write Cadence analyses. Melcomhe, p. 80 — Ia FD5 , Ib SD ; IIa «L3 , IIb D . Evelyn, p. 80 — 1a D3 , Ib -JS^ ; IIa L» , IIb D . Cannons, p. 81 — Ia "ir^ , Ib S6 ; IIa -3f3 , IIb L . Crofts, p. 81— Ia F3 , Ib D ; IIa 8D3 , IIb «D ; IIIa "if 3. niB D . Mailer, p. 82— Ia D3 , iB S5 , Ic ^D ; IIa P3 ^ IIb sds^ lie "'if , IId D . Innocents, p. 83 — Ia FD^ , Ib S5 ; 11k ^D , IIb D . Bach, p. 83 — Ia FD5 . Ib D ; IlAt^^^Sfes, IIbSD ;- IIIa D3 , IIIb L ; IVa D65 , IVb D . Sharon, p. 84 — Ia 94DD3 , Ib Sfi ; IIa 'wsdDS, IIb D . say, p. 85 — Ia ''SdOfe , Ib S's IIa ^D^S , nB^D IIIa KMfe , IIIb S5 ; IVA-'SdDfc, IVbD . 76. Relations of Melodic and Rhjrtliniic Reply.— Nothing contributes more to show that one part of a tune belongs to another than some similarity or contrast in the Rhythm, or in the upward or downward motion of its phrases. The relationship is all the more striking when these points of similarity or contrast appear in corresponding parts of Sections or Periods, — for example, when the opening of one Section is similar or contrasted with the opening of another, — or when the close of one Section or Period replies to the close of another. 766. Rhythmic Imitation. — In the tune there occurs the rhythm TAA-efe TAA-efe "Rousseau," p. 100, the rhythm taa taa- taa. Even if there were no unity ol efe TAA TAA occurs at the opening of each melody these rhythms would still bind the l«'thnuc imitiitions should always occupy the sdine places of corresponding sections. The section IIb has little connection -ivith any of the other sections. But it reminds us of IIa in its close, — and that chiefly by yii'tue of its rhythmic imitation, for laelodi- cally the imitation is a distant one ; we can only say that both the phrases fall. Niigi'li, the author of " Life let us cher- ish," p. 101, was very earnest in 'teaching iis pupils the principles of " Rhythmic Heply." It is interesting to see how in this tune he treats the rhythmic form taa-ai- KE taa TAI tee TAA-AI TEH TAA-AI-EE, clothing it with a variety of time foi-ms. In "See, the conqueiing hero," p. 104, the gTeat rhythm is tafatefe taatai taa taa, and this binds the time together in all directions. 76c. Similar and Conlrarij Motion. — In the tune " Melcombe," p. SO, the second line declares its relationship to the fii'st by the downward stepwise phrase starting from (i', because the first line had a similur downward phrase starting from s. This is called relation by '• Similar Motion." The thii-d line shows its relationship to the fli'st by a contrasted opening. It moves stepwise upward from in, just as the tii'st line moved stepwise dow7iward from s. In the same way the opening of the fourth line also reminds us of the thii'd by contrast. This is called relation by " Contrary Motion." 7GtZ. Generally Contrasted Motion. — In the time "Cannons," p. 81, Ie shows its connection with Ia by an imitation both melodic and rhythmic one thud higher, and IIa and B show that they belong to those whieh-precede them, not by exactly ccmti'ary motion, but by generally con- trasted motion. The feeling of upward movement has been strongly impressed on the mind by Ia and b, and it is tem- pered and toned down by the generally downward movement of IIa and B. 76e. Similar and Contrary Wavings. — In the melody of "Crofts," p. 81, Ib indicates its unity with Ia by making its fust phrase of four tones move "do^vn, up, down," while the coii-esponding phrase of Ia moved " up, do\\Ti, up," and by making its closing phrase of two tones move down while the closing phrase of Ia moves up. This we call " contrary wav- ing," to distinguish it from contrary motion, for contrai-y motion, interval by interval, would have made the second line : 5 \r '.m \r : s \f : The lu'st phi'ase of IIa reminds us of the fii'st phrase of Ia by similar waving ; its tones moving "up, down, up" like those of Ia, but with ditliri.-nt intervals. Exactly similar motion would have made : /j | I »■ : (^ I r : The closing phrases of Ia and IIa have similar motion. The tii'st phrase of IIb replies (though in another key) to the corresponding j^hrasa of In by similar motion (almost repetition) except for the substitution of d for s, which inti-oduces a bit of contraiy waving. The closing phrases of la and IIb are iu simple contrary motion. The section TTtV asserts its kinship with Ia by repeating its last four tones. Tiese form its first phrase, and its second phrase replies thereto by a " generally contrasted" mo- I tion. Each accent is approached dowu- I ward, just as in the first phrase each accent was approached upward. It is sometimes diUicult to describe these melodic relations, but the ear feels them nevertheless, and acknowledges them as a soui'ce of unity. The section IHb opens with exact coutrai-y motion to the last phrase of ITT a, and closes with contrary waving to its own fii'st phrase. 76/. Sepetition. — The beauty of the tune "Bach," p. 83, lies much in "its "repeti- tion" of the second section Ib in the close IVb. Repetition in music, as Mr. Ruskin says about the repetition of forms in pictm-es, " indicates a quiet and satisfied state of mind." But if repetition were not set off by variety it would only show indifference and dulness. It is interest- ing to notice the way in which the mind is prepared for the repetition iu this case. The rhythm at least of Ib is not allowed to be forgotten when IIb (which also closes a period) repeats the characteristic part of its taa taatai, not in the same tones, but (with altered key) in the tones of Ia. This was enough for IIb to do; if tlie TAA taatai had been followed by the XAATAi taa, the imitation would have been unnecessarily 'close. The section nin (which occupies a similar position at the end of a period) wanders farthest I from the favom-ite Iheme both in rhj'thm 1 and in mode ; but change and variety I' have reached their limit, for the ear is : delighted at the opening of IVa, not only 1 to return to the major mode, but to have a joyful leap do-wnward from the d', which calls to memory the characteristic interval rfi to r, and prepares us to hear its touching hopefulness at the opening of IVb. Incidentally the student will not fail to notice in the opening, sections — the A's — of each period the quiet step- wise motion. Especially he will observe how \ s : I \ s in IVa replies in con- trary motion to. the I TO :r \m of IIa, and how \m : f | .s- in IVa replies to the \l -.d' I ;•" of HA. H 98 RBPETinoy. TRANSinoNAt JMITATION. Another illustration of repetition is supplied by the tune "Eeay," p. 85. Here there are f oui- periods, in whicli the first sections of each period — the A's — ■ are distinguished by rising accents, and the second sections — the B's — by fallinjj iiccents. The section IVa is the same as Ia. The ear is prepared for this repeti- tion by the variety and contrast which the intervening first sections — A's — sup- ply. The section Ha replies to Ia by similar waving in its first phrase, and contrary motion in its second. The section HLv replies to Ia by a strong contrast, especially in its cadence phrase ; and after so many changes the ear is glad to welcome again the striking section with which the tune beg8,n. In the well-known tune " Innocents," p. 83, we have an illustration of the monotonous effect of repetition. The repetition of Ia by IIa would undoubtedly be very wearisome if modem hannony had not contrived to carry the section Ha into the first sharp key, thus introducing variety. On the other hand, in "Itous- seau," p. 100, we see how the marked contrary motion and higher pitch of the middle period gives variety and relief to the ear, and so makes it welcome the repetition of the quiet first period. 76^. Imitating Sections. — ^In the tune "Cannons," p. 81, Ib imitates Ia a minor Third higher ; in other words, it repeats it in the relative major. In the second period of the tunc " MiiUer," p. 82, IIb imitates Ha one step higher, and He imitates Hb four steps higher still. Notioi that both these are rising imitations, and convey the idea of excitement. l&h. Transitional Imitation. — In the tune " Sharon," p. 84, the first three tones of Ha are exactly the same as those of Ia, and the next five tones are the same a Fifth higher; in fact, they are the same tones, only in another key. The harmony changes that part of the section into the first sharp ksy. Imita- tions of this kind are very frequent ; we have alreadv noticed them in "Bach," p. 83, and "Croft," p. 81, above. The student will soon see how the section In of "Sharon," p. 84, reminds us of Ia, not only by its contrasted cadence, but by the way in which its strong accents iTse from I to t just as those of Ia rose from m to s. The section Ha begins like Ia, but its accents rise higher, from m tc s, from s to l, from I Ui W. No wondei that after this threefold experience of rismg passion the ear is thankful for the generaUij contrasted motion of Hb. Notice how in Book H, p. 59, the section Hb of "Lux Vitpe" imitates Ib, one being in the first sharp key, and the other being in the principal key. Notice, on the same page, how one line of " Seaford " imitates the other, the first being in the principal key, and the second in the second sharp key; and how one line of " Calvary " imitates the other, one being in the relative minor of the principal key, and the other being a Fourth higher, in the second sharp major. 77. Relation of "Parts" in Harmony.— Juat as the ear observes the relation of similarity and contrast in different phrases of melody heard separately, so it observes them in the different "parts" of harmony sounding together. When two parts move in the same or nearly the same direction, they are said to be in Siniilar Motion. When two parts move in opposite directions, they are said to be in Contrary Motion. When one part holds the same tone while the other part moves upward or downward, the one is said to be in Oblique Motion to the other. These manifestations of similarity and contrast show a fellowship and unity between one " part " in the harmony and another. As the outer parts (generally soprano and bass) are those most noticed by the ear, a relative motion between those parts is more effective than when it exists between other parts. 776. r.lustrations. — There is Similar Motion between soprano and bass in the openings of "Melcombe," p. 80, Ia and Ib. There is Contrary Motion between soprano and bass both at the beginning and at the close of "Melcombe," p. 80, Ha. At the opening of the same section I both soprano and tenor are m Oblique Motion with the contralto. Similarly, in the close of " Sharon," p. 84. Ib, both soprano and conti'alto are in Oblique Motion with tenor. In " Evelyn," p. 80, we hare Simitar Motion between soprano and bass in the close of Ia, and Oontrarp RELATIVE MOTIOW OF PARTS. ANALYSIS. 99 Motion in the closes of IIa and IIb. In the close of Ib, two of the parts stand still while the other two parts move in ,l,.r,f:" ,f Y. 1 r.l.i ,ti :t .r,f: ,f ■ r,t, .d' ,d. ,3 :m,d.3„iii, 1 f f. :r 1 1 3 s, :s. d d. :- Id :- Id d :- I- m, :- I- d :s, jd, D.S. AXRS WITH ACCOlfPANIMENT. 108 Ia.J = M. 63. Adagio Ib. Voick. ' I VTRonnr.Tinv. ^*^ }J ' 1 isi: 3 ^St ^ -?-J '^^i si m t? -•■■•■*••■ -?:3- • frpD ill rJ ' I' ^=^^^j ^=^-^^F3^— 1— i^— — ^^■=. i HA. niA. =ii; ^^i^=?^?^=^ -f3:=1^ :ij=^ir=t* +-1 — I— i-t— I- t:T^^::R:? @ *:^it ^ ^ ^r^F= r^ ■^- -#- -,*- !*• hb. uib. r ^i|ipigi|^raiiisip^iM^ -at -0- -^ Tfi- -p- ^ -p- -0- M ' W- -^ -0- -p- -p- -p- ^ -p- -p- I I I I I I I I Symphony. inc. Szz* ^=5-^ilFf^ ^^m m^^^ 104 A TEIO FOK S.S.C. Ia. SEE THE CONQUERING HERO COMES. KEY G. Trio OR Chorus OF Youths. S.S.C. — r .m;f .s |f s m d - |n :-.f s |d :-.r m - Id Id 1^ - |— :S| d — t,.d:r .m |r s, Handel. I- Ib. m.f :8 .1 |3 d .r;m .f |m d~:- I- II A. m.r :ni.f |!n d.t,:d.r|d d :t," |d IIb. l.se-.l.tll m :— j— :s d.t, :d.r|d it. :s d' s tn — |8 h Id - f m.r |r -.d t, s, d d d — Fl.SE. 1— : — :m r d 1- :d t, d |s, r :ir .r Id tT :d.t :se, |1. 11, :d f m ji- d 1, r, t, se m, - 1— : ••1, r d lt, 1- : :f, r. — 1- 1- : D.t. df :— m' :r'.d'|t d' :l.l IS d yi~\s f.G. .d' d'E : — "t, - :-; D.C. FUQAL IMITATION. SEQTJKNCE. 105 79. Relations of Fugal Imitation.— A favourite mode of declaring the unity of a musical piece, especially among the older writers, was that of causing Imitations or contrasts, not in different phrases of the same melody, nor in different "parts" of the harmony sounded at the .same time, but in different parts of the harmony sounded at different times. This kind of Imitation is the more effective if the imitating phrases seem to " fly " one after the other, and especially if they make their entry after a pause in the particular voice to which they belong. They are called Fugal or Flyliiq Imitations. 80. Analysis of Fugal Imitations.— In analysing Fugal Imi- tations, it is well to say — (1st) between what "parts" the imitation occurs, (•2nd) after how many pulses it enters, (3rd) at what interval (above or below) it starts, and (4th) for how long it continues. (4th) two measures ; in the second treat- ment, VIb, it is— {1st) between 1st S., C, 2nd S., and T., (2nd) after one pulse in each case, (3rd) at the unison and octave, (4th) for two measures. Note that sequential imitations in the same part are not fugal imitations. The student should also notice that in answer- ing the second question the distance be- tween the last entity of the theme and that which immediately pi'ccedes it should be given, but in answering the third ques- tion the intei-val of the entry from the tlieme as first announced should be given. SOc. Companion. — When an imitating phrase is accompanied by another part a 3rd, 6th, or 10th below, we propose to call tlic accompanying part a " companion." 80i. Example. — In "Flora gave me," p. 142, Ib, the imitation on the words " None so fair," is— (1st) between 1st S. with B. and 2nd S. with C, (2nd) after one piUse, (3rd) at the unison and fifth above, (4th) for three measures ; that on "These I placed," LTa, is— (1st) be- tween «nd S. with T., and C. with B., (2nd) 'after three measures, (3rd) at the fifth below, (4th) for two measures : that on " SmiUiig meadows," Va, is — (1st) between 1st S., C, T., 2nd S., and B., (2nd) after two pulses, one pidse, two pulses, and two pulses, (3rd) at the octave and rfourth below, (4th) for two measui'es ; that on " Come, ye happy ones," VIa, is — (1st) between 1st S., C, 2nd S., and T., (2nd) after one pulse in each case, (3rd) at the unison and octave. 81. Relations of Sequence. — When imitating phrases follow closely one after the other in the same " part " they are said to form a Sequence, or " following." When the Scqueuce is confined to one " part " (as soprano or bass), it is called a Melodic Sequence. When all the parts have a Sequence of then- own, they are said to make a Harmonic Sequence. SVt. TJie Word " Sequence." — Some teachers confine the use of this word to harmonic sequence, and to sucli harmonic sequences as can be obtained without change of key or mode. 81c. Melodic .S'e^ucnce. —Examples of this, shorter or longer, are very common. We have in the air of "O thou that tellest," a phrase of three tones imitated in four-fold sequence, each imitation rising a step. KEY A. :d Id :t, :r |r :d •.m In -.r ;f |f :pi *'-igi:3 This may be called a Contralto Sequence", there is no sequence in the accompani- ment. In the third section of " London" as commonly harmonized, we have a three-fold sequence of two tones in the Bass, each imitation rising a step. KEY Bi7. :f, Ir, :s, 1 m, :1, If, fcU-i Tliere is a simple sequence in the tenor, but not in the other parts. Wo may call this a Bass Sequence. See also " How to OV)serve," il. 74. p. 37, where the sequences of soprano and tenor are only fractional. In the well-known tune "St. Bride" loe SEQUENCE, TONAL AND PEEPECT. there is in the third line a very good soprano and bass sequence, but there ia no clear sequence in the other parts. 81d. Harmonic Sequence. — Those which are formed without alteration of key or mode are called "Tonal Sequences," of which the following' are examples, the one rising a step, the otYx&c falling a step. 7'onal Seq. (one step higher). ToTial Seq. (one step lower) . KEY E. J. S. C. 1 :1 IS :s 3 :s If :f r :f |S ;s d •.m If :f r' :r' |r' :r' d' :d' Id' :d f.ni:r.d|t, :t, | m.rid.t, |1, :1, -"--"- -m- -m- -m- -»■ ''^^51^; See Tonal Sequences in "How to Ob- serve," il. 75, p. 38, and il. 196, p. 107. More exact imitations can be made by the help of transition and modulation, and such sequences may be called "Tian- sitional or Modulating' Sequences." The following' is a simple modulating sequence, going from major to relative minor, and falling a Tiiird. Major to Relative Minor. KEY E. TUELE. s :s r :ni t :d' 8 :d' m :m |n t, ;d it, se :1 |se m :1 im The following is the reverse of this, moving from minor to relative major, and rising a Third. Minor to Relative Major. KEY A. J. S. C. r :r |d The following is a sequence to the first flat key, major. Notice that if written in the "better method" (which, for the con- venience of the singer, is not employed in passing transition), the bass of the second half would be : f, \ m, : r, \ di and the other parts would similarly show a perfect sequence. It rises a Fourth. First Flat Key. KEY A. Di-KBS. :f, s, ;s, |3, d d :d Id d, :r, |m, f^, f, :s, |1 I :t Id d r :m If m, :r, Id, ta, 1, :s, If r \ III 1 I p The following is the reverse of the last. It makes a sequence in the first sharp key, major, and rises a Fifth. lu the better method, the second half of the bass would be : «, \d : r \ m, and the other parts would show their imitation in the same way. EISING A STEP, A. TUIiil), A FIFTH. KALLIWS A STEP. 107 First Sharp Key. KK.v D. Memdbi.ssoiik. See a first sharp sequence in "How to Observe," il. 101, p. 55. The following' sequence i-iaes one step by means of the first flat minor. First Flat Slinor. KEY Bfe. The following falls a step by means of the first sharp, major. It will be easily seen that if i ;t, |d :s |s :s. Id The foUowmg sequence rises a Third by m.eana of the fii-st sharp minor. KEY P. s d First Sharp Minor. J. S. C. :1 IS :re |ni :fe im ;t. im 1^ .•L ^ I I 4^ The transitions of two removes allow lis to rise or fall a step without modula- tion. The second sharp key rises a step thus — Second Sharp Key. KEY D. ~ See " How to Observe," U. 153, p. 86. The second flat key falls a step, thus — Second Fla,t Key. KEY F. d.f.Eb. 108 ANALYSIS OF SEQTJENCE. ORGAX-POINT, ETC. See " How to Observe," il; 154, p. 87. l in " How to Observe," il. 150, p. 84. See A common case in which tones leave the also " Musical Theory," Book II., pp. 60 original key for the sake of getting this and 59. And compare on this whole kind of sequence is that which we have subject, " Construction Exercises," pp. called oscUlating sequence. See two cases ' 42, 44, 51, 52, 94. 82. Analysis of Sequence. — In analysing a Sequence it is important to enquire —1st) What is its structure, as melodic, and if so, in what "part;" or harmonic, and if so, tonal or perfect ; and with what transitions or modulations ? 2nd) What is the length (counted by pulses) of each limb in the Sequence.'' 3rd) Does each limb rise or fall from the previous one, and by what interval ? 4th) Of how many limbs does the Sequence consist ? 826. Tllustrattons. — Thus, the example from "O thou that tellest," above, is — 1st) a contralto sequence, 2nd) of three pulses, 3rd) rising a second, 4th) four- fold. The example from S. Smith is — 1st) a harmonic tonal sequence, 2nd) of four pulses, .3rd} rising a second, and 4th) two- fold. The example from Mr. T"urle is — 1st) a harmonic perfect sequence, going from major to relative minor, 2nd) of fotir pulses, 3rd) falling a minor Third, and 4th) two-fold. Thenext, by J. S. C, I seven-fold is^lst) a perfect harmonic sequence. from minor to relative major, 2nd) of four pulses, 3rd) rising a Third, and 4th) two-fold. In the example from Mendelssohn there is — 1st) a perfect harmonic sequence, moving to the first sharp key, 2nd) of fo\rr pulses, 3rd) rising a Fifth, and 4th) two-fold. In "Evfirj' valley," p. 156, itrom the seven- teenth to the nineteenth mea-sures there is — 1st) a harmonic tonal sequence, 2nd) two pulses, 3rd) rising a second, 4th) 83. Organ-point, Recurring Bass, and Double Counter- point.— "Organ-point," which will be explained in connection with Harmony, is a long-held Dominant or Tonic. It is chiefly used for strongly asserting the key, and so contributing to the unity of the music. " Ground (or Keciu-ring) Bass " is a bass phrase or " figure " (generally instrumental) constantly recurring throughout the piece, and giving it a strange kind of unity. A passage in Double Counterpoint is one in which the lower "parts" of the first phrase become the higher "parts " of the second phrase, and vice versa. On all these subjects consult " Construction Exercises," pp. 64, 147. 84. Development of Themes. — The methods of Imitation above described, with some others, enable a composer to announce a musical phrase (which may be called the "Model," or the " Subject," or the " Theme ") at the beginning of his composition, and then to introduce it again in varied forms and under varied circumstances in other parts of the same composition. When this is done on a well-developed plan, the hearer becomes conscious of a beautiful design ; and the employment of design in composition not only secures unity and variety, but engrosses the interest, and gives an intellectual as well as an emotional pleasure. DEVELOPMENT OF THEMES. 109 84&. Means of Tliemntic Development. — Some of the means of developing a theme have ah'eady been described under the heads of Rhythmic, Melodic, Harmonic, and Filial Lnitation. To these, others are added in the foUowinfj table. Some of them aflford but distant imitations of the theme ; still tliey are snlHcient, when skilfully introduced, to stir the memory and gratify the ear. 1. A Theme. KEv F. Id :f.nilr :t, 11 aai^^m^"! 2. Do., Raised. :l.s|f :r i^^^ 3. Do., Lowered. It, :ni.r|d ^=^1 4. Do., Widened. Id :s ,m Id fe ^ 6. Do., Narrowed. Id :ni .r Id 6. Do., Lengthened. |d :- |t :„ |r :- |t, ,- || s^i 7. Do., Shortened. Id .f,iri:r .t, ^^^^m 9. Do., with Omission. Id :- .01 |r : — il=S ^Sll 10. Do., with Changed Order. Id :ni.f|r ;t, 11. Do., u-ith Reversed Order It, :r.i»i|f :d 12. Do., Inverted. Id :s,.l,|t, :r :3=i^P^ 13. Do., in a Keiv Key. KEY C. Isd' If .m'lr' ;t 14. Do., in Neiv Mode. 11, :r.d|t, :se, ^: 15. Do., in New Measure. Id ;- :- |f :- -.m Ir :- :- jt,:- :- ^^^^^g| 16. Do., with Neto Accent. :d |f.m:r |t. 8. Do., with liepetition. Id :f.ni|d :f.ni|r :t, Ir :t, M JPF^^ 17. Do., with Ornamentation. |d,s,.d,ni:f,r.ni,d|r,t,.r,d;t, 11 110 AXALTSIS OF THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT. 18. Do., ifith Aeeompaniment. / d :f .m r :t, .t„r:s,S|.s,f * * -m- -^^ 19. Do., in a New "Pari." m,s . d,s : r,s . d.s f ,1 ,.r,f : s!,s,.r,s d :f .m 20. Do., vnlh New Aeeompaniment. d -.f .m m .s.c,s:l,d'.s,d' d :- s,f .s ,r:f ,s.f,r t, :s, a SI « « ^ 7>o., )'n Fugnl Style. ;f .n r :t, d Any two or more of these means of thematic development may be combined. Thus a theme inay be both lengthened and ornamented, both raised and inverted, shortened and lowered, changed both in key and mode, and so on. Indeed, it would be difficult to exhaust all the con- trivances by means of which a theme can be made different while it is still felt to be the same. See further, pp. 186. 187. 84c. Examples. — Thematic development is best studied in good instrumental music, like that of the Haydn or First Move- ment Form (p. 19P),or the Fugue Form (p. 220). The reason why instrumental music gives more scope for thematic de- velopment than vocal music is that it has a much greater compass, so that a theme which itself covers, say a Fifth or a Sixth, can be easily repeated an octave above or an octave below. Band music offers also the advantage of reproducing the same theme by means of instruments of differ- ent quality and effect. Moreover, instiii- mental music is free from any of those limitations or requirements which poetry always imposes on its sister art. Lobe quotes the Grand Finale to Haydn's Sym- phony in D as a rare example of thematic development. In so small a work as this we can only print the first " strain " of this " movement," but it is sufficient to let the pupil see the "surroundings" of Development, and the manner in which it is introduced. Every measure in this extract teaches something, t^ee p. 207. 85. Analysis of Thematic Development.— In tracing the development of a theme it is as necessary as ever to bear in mind the rhythmical divisions of the music we are analysing. The effectiveness of a new development depends upon the place as well as the manner in which it makes its appearance. We must, therefore, first divide the piece into its Strains, Periods, and Sections, and then see where the special points of thematic development make their appearance, and of what kind they are. There may be more than one theme in a piece of music, but in the early analysis exercises it will be better to trace one theme at a time. We have, therefore, to answer these questions — 1st) What is the theme to be developed ? 2nd) What appearances does it make in Ia, Ib, «fec., and in what manner does it appear there ?* EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION. OBARACTERISTICS OF KEYS. Ill S5ft. rihistrath7i.—ThxiB, if wc listen to the first strain of Haydn's Finale, p. 207, we shall notice that it divides iteelf into two parts just where the music comos to a cadence in key A, the fii'st sharp key, and where the principal theme enters again in that key. Behind that point there are fif ty-f oui' measures, and beyond it sixty-four. Behind it, the music easily divides into two periods at the point where, after a Ion"; run, the first theme enters in the first flat key, at measui-e 31. Bfynnd the central cadence the music easily divides into two periods, just where, after a long' run, the new singing theme enters — at measure 84. Thus we have — lA=18meas.,lD=12meas., nA=13meas., nB=ll meas., inA=10 meas., inB=19 meas., rVA=18 meas., rVB=17 meas. ThBpiincipal theme is, 1st) — Is :f |r :— |f :m id : — :r.m|d |r 2nd) It appears in Ia, meas. 3, 4, 5, 6, and again 7, 8, 9, 10, and is repeated an octave higher in meas. 11, 12, 1,3, 14, and again 15, 16, 17, 18. In In this theme does not occur. In Ha the first part of it appears in the fiivst flat, key, meas. 1, 2, and is repeated in the left hand part, m. 3, 4, 5. It is taken up again by the bass at meas. 8, 9, 10. In IIu this theme does not occur. In IHa it appears in the first sharp key, in meas. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, 6, 7, 8, with a delayed cadence in 9, 10. In HIb this theme does not occur. In rV'A this theme does not occur. But in IVb the first part of it appears in a con- tracted form with altered accents, re- peated in a lively and elegant passage for sis. measures, and the second part of it is also repeated, with slight alteration, five times. This subject is pursued further under the heading of tlie " Haydn or First Movement Form " below p. 198. 86. Development of Emotional Expression. — Music lays hold of our emotions — 1st, by the emphasis given to particular tones of the scale (see the subject of mental effects, above, pp. 17 to 20) ; 2 lid, by the rhythm and style of movement which is used (see the effects of measure and rhythm, above, pp. 25 to 38) ; 3rd, by the skilful use of key and mode (see the Minor Mode, above, pp. 40 and 48 ; Modulation, p. 62 ; Transition, pp. 53, 57, &c.) ; 4th, by the combinations of force and speed in aid of expression (see Book IV) ; and 5th, by the nature and style of the harmony (see Book V). When these materials are so used as to produce a progressive development of emotion — carrying the mind through the various phases of expectation, discovery, and satisfaction — they give life and unity to the tune. The Development of Theme described in the last jDaragraph sparkles like a golden thread of intellectual interest running through the composition, but the Development of Emotional Expression (which may employ various themes) stirs the soul more deeply — makes it feel the throb of Life, and compels it to march in the path of Power. 865. Characteristics of Keys. — It will be readily understood that major mode tunes have a very different character from minor mode tunes whose Tonics are at the same pitch. It is also felt that when a tune is raised to a higher key it becomes more bright, and when changed to a lower key it becomes more dull. Moreover, it is obvious that, in singing, a key which places its Tonic cadence in the middle of the vocal range produces a different effect from one that requires that cadence to be in the lower or higher part of the voice. Tliis is the distinction which old writers made between Plagal and Authentic melodies. A melody in key G, ranging from s, to s, would be called a Plagal melody, and one in key C, ranging from d to d\ would be called Authentic. But the attempt to affix certain characters to each of the keys, as when it is said that D major expresses " majesty, grandeur, and pomp," and C major, " innocence, manly resolve, and deep reUgious feeUng," and that G major is the " favourite key of youth, express- 112 inJSTCA.L EXrEF.SSIOX. EXAMPLES OF DEVELOPMENT. bag sincerity of faith, quiet love, calm meditation, simple grace, pastoral life, and a ceitain humour and brightness," is, we think, a mistake. There "might be some foundation for these fancies' under the old system of organ and piano tuning, by which keys most distant from C were the most out of tune, but " equal tempera- ment" by its very name claims equnlit}- among the keys. Besides, the pitch ha.5 been raised one step since Handel's time, and "See, the conquering hero," which is quoted as an " unrivalled example " of the bright, joyous G major, was really sounded ih what we now call F major, a key which our fanciful writers say " is at once full of peace and joy, but also ex- presses effectively a light, passing regret — a mournful, but not a deeply sorrowful feeUng," — which is a very poor account of " See, the conquering hero." 86c. Musical Emotion General, not Definite, hut Real and Powerful. — ^It must be borne in mind that music expres.ses feelings without showing the particular object of those feelings. Its emotional expression is general and iudefinite, and words are too precise and exact to de- Ecribe it. Our best description in words always limits too much the musical effect described. For example, the lowly plead- ing of love in a certain musical phrase may to one mind sviggest some human affec- tion ; to another mind, the dedication of a soul to God. Or a lively utterance of I joy in another musical phrase may carry one man into the excitement of the dance, | while it fiUs another vnXh thoughts of the | morning song of the lark. In musical ! expression there is always some scope j and "play" left for our own imagination | and oiu' own mood of mind to fill up the details ; and our own imaginations are often too realistic to perceive nil that there is in the music. Making allowance i for this, however, the effort to analyse I and describe is a very valuable one to the student. It compels him to observe more closely, to watch the relation of one ' mental state with another, and to see an order in the development of the idea and feeling th roughout the tune. It has been proved by experiment that if a tune is composed and sent to musical men in different parts of the world for emotional analysis, their accounts of it will be in different words, but will possess a won- derful unanimity in their description of the feeling and purpose of the piece. SM. Examples. — The student must be- gin with the simplest tunes, and go on to the more difdcult. Let him listen to the tune, and not be afraid to write down what it says to his own feelings as he hears it, remembering that though it may Bay something slightly different to an- other, it will be something of the same kind, and the development of thought and feeling will be in the same order. Thu.s, if we take Ia of the tune " Mel- combe," p. 80 (with its film J m s accents, and with'its exceptional leap gi\'ing em- phasis to the touching I) as representing si>me kindly sentiment, — Ib {with its imi- tated motion) may be taken as a medita- tion on the subject, — Ha {emphasizing the prayerful rah, and the desolate fah) as a humble emotion, and IIb {with all its accents on doh, me, and soh) as a firm conclusion of the whole matter. This gradual development of sentiment and feeling binds the whole tune together. Following the plan of analysis, p. 88, we should ^vrite the emotional form of " Melcombe " tiius — Ia a thoughtful sentiment , Ib Elevation of the same ; LLa. a subdued feeling , Ha Firm conclusion If we suppose that Ia of the tune "Evelyn," p. 80, expresses the quiet sentiment of the " calm " me, Ib repUea to it wth an equally urgent rhythm, but (by its emphasis on ray and fah) with deeper emotion, IIa solemnly (because of its harmony) but firmly restores the calmness, and IIb ;with its strong accent and lengthening of the prayerful rah, and ita emphatic leap downward upon lahj makes the emotion of Ib prevail over all. The emotional fonn of "Evelyn," p. 80, would be thus — Ia Quiet sentiment , Ib The same with deeper emotion ; IIa Firm and solemn assertion , IIb Starong emotion The emotional character of the tune " Cannons," p. 81, must depend much upon the speed at which it is taken. If taken at say M. 80, Ia would express sadness modified by the rhythmic play which TAA-efe at the end of the first measm-e, and taa-aatai at the end of the second measure supply. Ib retains the same bright rhythm, and deUvers it with brighter tones. IIa (with lingering accents on fah and ray] delivers a wild I wail of grief, which in IIb is quieted down (with accents on me, ray, and te, and an 1 emphatic fall on lah) to troubled submis- 1 sion. The changes of emotion here are ! not unnatural, but very sudden. The j emotional analysis of this time would t e— I Ia a sad but not hopeless thought , Ib The same, more strong and hopeful ; I IIa An outburst of gi-ief , I IIb Troubled submissioB KXAMPLES OP EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 113 The tune "Crofts," p. SI, iniA, b utters a majestic sentiment, which quietens down to satisfaction ; in IIa, b dehvers the same sentiment, on a loftier plain ol' feeling ; and in in a, n, bursts out into a more passionate emotion, which after sti-ong assertion by an ascending- phrase, ends with sudden contentme*nt. The emotional form of this time is : — Ia Majestic sentiment , Ib Satisfaction ; IIa Loftier sentiment , IIb Satisfaction ; IHa More excited passion , IHb Assertion and satisfaction . If we regard Ia of the tune " Miiller," p. 82, as an earnest assertion, Id as a playful reply by contrary motion, and Ic as a conclusion, humble but expectant, — then, the opening- of H takes up the first theme by conti'ary motion, elevates it by the excitement of a sequence, which cul- minates in He, and closes in a quiet perfect cadence in Iln replying to the quiet but expectant cadence of Ic. The emotional form of this tune may be represented thus^ La An earnest assertion , Ib Playful reply , lo Humhle, expectant close ; IIa First thought modified & improved, IIb Elevated , nc More markedly elevated , IId Conclusion "Innocents," p. 83, has a very simple emotional form — Ia a thought made joyful by the taa -aatai rhythm, and the leap from a to lO , Ib a himible echo of the same, with expectancy ; Ha The joyful thought repeated with a brighter and surer cadence , TIb Humbly echoed and brought to a conclusion The tune "Bach," p. 83, has two strains. The first closes in the expectant Dominant, and the second in the Tonic. Its emo- tional character is that of quietness and pleasantness, which does not allow any great exciting point in the music. It may be analysed thus — I A Pleasant sentiment , Ir a hopeful reflection on it, repeating its rhythm, and emphasizing ray ; IIa Another thoiight, bright and ele- vated , IIb First thought re-asserted in its brilliant rhythm, and at a high pitch ; niA A serious thought, with its em- phasis on fa/i, the distinguishing tone of the I'etuming key , niB A sad conclusion ; TV A Eetiun of joyfulness, quoting the closes of Ia and IIa , IVb Triumphant repetition of Ib, with its brilliant rhythm " Sharon," p. 84, may be analysed thus— Ia An earnest, touching thought , Ib The same, elevated and made more touching by lak and te ■ IIa The same, commencing like the first, but rising to a higher elevation than before, through the change of kay , IIb Quieting thoughts, with descend- ing accents The tune " Eeay," p. 85, like " Bach," p. S3, is in two strains, the fii-st of which cuds in the fii-st sharp key, and the se- cond in the principal key. In the second strain, IIIa contrasts wth Ia by its emo- tional accents. IHb imitates Ib in its first bright accent, and its emotional cadence. IVa repeats that which TTTa contrasted. And IVb imitates the ca- dence-phrase of IIb, with a brighter beginning, and in the original key. It may be analysed thus — Ia, B An aspiring thought, with its reply ; Ha, b The same elevated, with an ele- vated but confirmatory reply ;— IHa, b a depressing reflection, with the first hopeful reply ; PVa, b The aspiring thought re-as- serted, with a final confia-mation " Life let us cherish," p. 101, may be analysed thus — Ia a bold, bright thought (with strong accents on d, m, s) , Ib The same, with decisive close ; Ha a contrasted thought , IIb The same, with livelier and wilder feeling ; IIIa, b Tlie old thought made surer by the previous contrast "Rousseau's Dream," p. 100, wouldhave almost the same analysis as the last, ex- cept that the first thought is not bold and lively, but rather sad and prayerful. " See, the Conquering Hero," p. 104, has a similar analy.sis to the last but one, except that the original theme is in a 14 BKXATION TO A PonTT. ANAtTSTS. bolder measure, which favours greater Btrength, and ttoat the contrasting' thought has greater earnestness of feeling. "Flora gave me," p. 142, has two strains, each repeated. Ia, b, c. a pleasant remembrance, grow- ing brighter. ; IIa, n, c. The same recollection grow- ing warmer and happier still ; in and IV. Repetition of I and II ; Va, b. a joyotis sentiment, arising from these memories ; VIa, b. The same gladsome feeling intensified ; Vn and Vin. Repetition of V and VI . 87. Relation to a Point. — In the course of the emotional development of a tune, there generally occurs some phrase which is more remarkable and effective than all the rest, and this we call the Point. In looking back on a tune, this Point dwells on the memory as the central image around which all the rest ia grouped, and all the rest seem to contribute to its beauty and effectiveness. 876. Illustrations. — ^Notice that the cul- minating point is sometimes that of de- pression, as in " EveljTi," p. 80, but more often that of elevation, as in " Sharon," p. 84. Notice also that the Point is some- times in the third line, as in " Cannons," p. 81 ; " Sharon," p. 84 ; and "Innocents," p. 83, but is often deferred to tlie fourth line, as in " Evelyn," p. 80, and " Mel- combe," p. 80. Observe yet fiulher that some tunes, which are not intended to excite the feelings greatly, have no very marted Culminating Point. Unity and Variety promote Beauty ; Point promotes Strength. See above, par. 62. In some cases — though not in music generally ap- preciated— the Point is not in the melody, but in some striking effect of the har- mony. Few will dispute that the Point in " Cannons, p. SI, is at the opening of Ha ; in "Sharon," p. 84, at the close of IIa; in " Evolj-n," p. 80, at the opening of IIb • in " Melcombe," p. 80, at the middle of IIb; in "Miillor," p. 82, at lie. In "Croft," p. 81, the "Point" is "unde- cided," unless IUb represent it. In sonte cases repetition, p. 97, above, developes "Point." Thus it is in "Innocents," p. 8.S, at IIa ; " Reay," p. 8.5, at IVa ; and in "Bach," p. 83, at r\'B. 88. Analysis of Emotional Development and Point.— The examples above given will show how Analyses of Emotional Development should be written. To these should be added a statement of " the place of Point," thus — " Point, end of IIa," or " Point, opening of IIb," or " Point, indefinite." This analysis is an exercise of great value to the student ; by it he compels himself to observe at once the most important things in a tune, and thus trains himself to a quick insight into a tune's " character :" and this will help him to its proper treatment. In the study of hymn-tunes, which have to be adapted to different sets of words, it is absolutely necessary that the studei.t should cultivate this power of ready and just appreciation. 89. Relations of Accompaniment. — That which accom- panies is necessarily subordinate to that which is accompanied. In listening to music, we give our attention to the principal musical passage, and merely allow the rest to influence us as it can. But it does make a great difference in the effect of music on our ear, whether there is much Accompaniment or little, whether it is heavy or light, whether it is steady or broken, and whether it is by one quality of instruments or another. Both unity and variety may be given to a tune by the style of its Aocorapaniment. Yariety is given by changing the manner of i STYLES OF ACCOirrANIMENT. 115 the Accompaniment with any new Period or Strain which has a chanf^e of sentiment. Unity is given when the same style of Accompaniment is introdnced in different parts. Beside these relations between the different Periods of a coinposition, there is also the immediate relation of an Accomjianiment to the melody it accompanies, and in this respect Accompaniment has great powers of promoting both variety and sympathetic unity. 896. Siyks of Accompaniment. — The styles of accompaniment are exceedingly varied, but we have ventured on the following classification of those which are principally used. The titles com- pared with the examples will explain themselves. 1. Accompaniment with Plain Chords KKY F / m :s Id' :-.t 1 :d' |s : ' d :d |d :-.s :-!d 1 f d :1 :f :d |s : ir : It, : d :d Id : -.m f :f IS : S=P= i^ ifESiliE^i JV-J— :P=^= ^■S==t=t "mm^ 2. KEY F. Accomp. with Ehijlhmic Chords. Id' .t .m :in.m I .s :s .s .d:d.d| .d:d.d .S|;S|.S|| ,S|;S|.S| d. : |m, : 1 :d' |s ; — .l:l.l|s : — .f:f.f|r :- .d:d.d|t|.S|:r.f f, : _|s, : r^^^=? ^=? ^^^m^m T^-^ g^3Eg^gEg=jg 3. KEY F. Accomp. with Arpeagio Chorda, d''is :- tn :s id' ; S|.d:m,d|S|.d; d : \m : 1 f ; ^ f.l,|t|.s; f.r =?== ^^SpS|^^§l ^l^iil^ 4. Accomp. iviih Figures not Purely Ghordal. :8 |d' .s ,f ;ni,d.ni,f |s .t :d' .d',t :l,f.s,l |t f :- IS ^=^-EE-=^-EE^~^^^^E^EE^~^EE^^^^^ jn: ^-^ =^=S^ rfc^E:::=p-— fl :g======g== i 116 STYLES OF ACCOMPANlMElfT. 6. Aecomp. tvith Figuraied Chords, KEY F. 8. Aecomp, as above. KEY F. n -.8 |d' :-.t :s. I -.d'. .s,:m.s,| .d:[alhy with that which precedes or that which follows, — are either echoes or preparations. But sometimes they may be only a few chords vrithout special meaning, giving a rest to the voice. In "Every valley," p. 1S6, the bymphomes of the accompaniment echo the immediately preceding phrase at Ib meas. 2 and 5 ; Ie, meas. 5 ; IIa, meas 2; IIb, meas. 2; lie, meas. 3. The SjTnphonies prepare the coming phrase at Ie, meas. 3 ; IIa, meas. 9 ; and lie, meas. 1. And they re-echo phrases which precede them, though not immediately, at It, meas. 7 ; and lie, meas. 11, 12. 90/. Episode. — The distinguishing char- acteristic of the Episode is that it is not a Symphony, but carries the ear away from the principal theme of the piece. Such an one occurs in Haydn's Finale, p. 207. at Ib, meas. 1 to 12. It strikes the ear in very mai-ked contrast to the theme which has been announced. Be- ginning with a Figure, accompanied by full chords, it passes into another and lighter Figure, and ends in a Run. An- other Episode is at IIb, meas. 1 to 8. It consists of a two-fold Figure with full chords. Another is at IHb, meas. 1 to 16. The first half consists of chords with rapid Runs attached to them; first in the right-hand, then in the left ; the second half consists of nm.-like Figures in duet. In Beethoven's Fii-st Movement, p. 200, Ib, meas. 6 to 13, there is a brilliant Episode, which comes between the first and second announcements of the second Theme. It consists of a long two-fold Figm-e. The next Episode is at TTTa, meas. 6 to 14, preparing for the varied repetitions of the second Theme which foUow. It consists of a two-fold Figure ornamented in its repetition. The next Episode begins with a two-fold Figure at IIIb, meas. 9 to 13, and concludes with thi-ee-fold Figure, meas. 13 to 18. The last Episode is in IVb, meas. 6 to 17, which is almost a repetition of the Epi- sode in Ib, lengthened out by the addition of foiu- measures, and put into the minor mode. 91. Analysis of Accompaniment, Addition, and Insertion. The attempt to study a complete piece of music, and to notice the effect on it of Addition, Insertion, and Accompaniment, is a 120 EXAMPLES OP ANALYSIS. very valuable exercise. Such an analysis must always be built on the Rhythmic Structure and Plan of the piece, in order that the pupil may see the relation of these " surroundings," — these " settings of the gem," — both to the principal Themes of the music itself, and to one another. 916. Examples. — In sho'n'ing- the dif- ferent kinds of aocompanimeut above we have already analysed the accompaniment of some complete pieces, as in '* Gun^r.s Waltz," p. ISO ; "La Vir^ella," p. 189; "All through the night," p. 102; and " Kosseau's Dream," p. 100. "Ever}- valley," p. 156, may be "analysed for accompaniment, addition, and insertion" thus— Ia has an instrumental introduction •which distinctly declares the two Them-js of the piece. Ib. The voice enters with the fust Theme unaccompanied, but a symphony immediately echoes it. Nest the accom- paniment supports the voice, and again re-echoes it in sj-mphony. Ic has a sequential figiu-e ■with an accompaniment chiefly of the light rhythmic-chordal kind, with occasional reminiscences of the lirst Theme, as in Ic, meas. 6. Id has a sequential figure and accom- paniment similar to I<-, vdth. occasional reminiscences of the first Theme, as in Id, meas. 6, and of the second Theme, as in Id, meas. 2, 3. Ib opens with a short phrase by the voice with plaiu-chordal accompaniment. The second Theme is then prepai-ed by the accompaniment, and announced by the voice, the accompaniment sympa- tfaixing and the symphony echoing. The words " and the rough places plain," are accompanied first by the second Theme, and then by a two-fold ngrure. " The crooked straight," is in the accompani- ment first echoed and then given sympa- thetically. If opens with a descending figure on the word "plain," with long-held tones, and accompanied by quickly-repeated chords. The period closes with an instrumental sjTnphony re-echoing the second Theme. Ha opens with sympathising and ec- hoing accompaniment. The figure on the word " exalted," has a simple chordal, and rhythmic chordal accompaniment. IIb. First Theme, with sympathetic accompaniment, also re-echoed in s>in- phony. The figiu-e which follows has very plain and light accompaniment. no. A short symphony again an- nounces the second Theme, which is then taken up by the voice, the accom- paniment svmpatliisiug, and the sjTn- phony re-echoing'. On the words, " the crooked straight," the accompaniment is sympathetic. Under the word " plain," we have the pretty figiue which we had before, Ik, meas. 8, 9. Then follows sympathetic accompaniment ; and under the long-held word " plain," a repetition of the second Theme. Plain chords close the accompaniment. IId. a beautiful iuBti-umeutal coda fuU of both Themes. 121 COMI'LETE FOKMS. 92. Essentials of a Musical Form.— A complete Musical Form is a composition, the elements of which possess such Structural Rclatious as are siifficient to secure Unity and Beauty. 926. Czerny's Requirements. — Czerny in his admirable "School of Practical Com- position " f^ives three essentials of a "decided Form" which has "the pro- perty of giving- satisfaction to the hearer, of itself and independently of any further continuation." Fii'st, it must conclude in the same key in which it began ; second, it must be divided into at least two parts, each of which expresses a determinate idea ; and thii-dly, it must end with a perfect cadence. These Structural Relations of Key, of Rhythm, and of Cadence, he considers essential even to the smallest of Musical Forms. 92c. Examples. — The shortest Forms in common use which comply with Czerny's conditions are the Single Chant, the Kyi'ie, and the Sanctus. Each of them begins and ends in the same key, is divided into at least two parts, and ends with a complete cadence. And the longest of the recog- nised Fonns, Marches, Dances, Songs, Choruses, and the Movements of a Son- ata, or a Symphony, comjily with the same conditions. 92d. Origin of Musical Forms. — liObc, in his "Catechism of Composition," boldly asks the question " How is it that Musi- cal Forms exist ? Were they thoughtfully and intentionally created by the Masters V ' And he answers it thus, " No ; the origi- nal elements of Musical Fonn were dis- covered by the certain instinct of the popular mind and feeling, and coined into national song and dance music." Mr. Carl Engel, in his "Study of National Music," says — "The people collectively may be considered the actual composers of national tunes. A short melody ex- temporized in a moment of extraordinary emotion is, if impressive, soon taken up by others, fui'ther diffused, and tradition- ally preserved. In the course of time it generally undergoes some remarkable modifications — a process of composition — until it has attained a gcuei-al favour- able acceptance by the nati(ju." He then quotes the laconic saying of W. Grimm, that " a national song composes itself." We must certainly allow that musical forms, like the different styles of archi- tectui-e and painting, were not at the first evolved out of artistic principles fixed ■ Jleasri. Morello, and settled by the great masters. Doubt- less they sprang from the natural instincts of the people, but from them combined with the tentative endeavours of the artist. The artist tried this plan and then the other, until he found something satisfac- tory both to himself and those about him. When he had foimd this, he naturally repeated it ; and those who followed him imitated him. He had created a " suc- cessful Form." There is no " law of the Medes and Pei'sians " about it, but only the law which any yood piece of art necessarily lays down for all future artists. They are bound to study it, and analyse it, and improve upon it as much as possible. Any one is at liberty to in- vent a new Musical Form. Musical Fomw may, like fashions, "come in" and "go out" again. But those which have most of artistic truth and beauty in them will be welcome to all ages — will be lasting Musical Forms. 92«. Beauty mid Form. — Mr. Ernest Pauer, in his "Elements of the Beautiful in Music,"* says that " Certain laws and rules must be observed in constructing a really perfect and beautiful musical work of art. He agrees with Professor Hand in claiming that the first law of beauty is that of symmetry, order, proportion — and this he calls "formal beauty;" that the second law of beauty is that of ex- pression of feeling or character — and this he calls "characteristic beauty;" and that the third law of beauty is design, imagination, ideality — which he calls "ideal beauty." "A real and perfect work of art," he says, "results from the union of these three elements, and not one of them can be dispensed with." " This idea of the three kinds of beauty — the foi-mal, the characteristic, and the ideal — may be readily explained by an analogy drawn from a sister art, that of painting. Three pictiu'es may be pre- sented to our notice : the first represents, we will say a boy — a lovely fomi, showing in its outlines and in its free grace, pro- portion and comi)Ieteness of design pene- trated by life. This is a picture oi formal beauty, and pleases through the literal charm of its outwai-d loveliness. In the second picture let there be represented Ew«r & Co. Is. 122 PKINCEPLES OF CLASSIWCATIOR . once more the same boy, but not alone ; now he is ■wrestling with another boy. They are in full activity; and in every line, and in the bodily action of each, is expressed youthftd vigour, and a certain exuberance of effort ; this second is a characteristic picture, and excites the in- terest of the looker-on by its %i porous life. In the third pictore, let the boys ap- pear once more ; but they are here shown as beings of a higher order, not belonging to common humanity ; they are repre- sented as genii or angelic spirits, as denizens of a higher world ; in fact, they are idealised. Something purely intel- lectual, not borrowed from natui'e, is here represented. One of the figures, we •will say, holds aloft a pahn branch, the other strives to grasp it ; but thLs action expresses a hidden meaning, and the spectator tries to understand the mystery of the symbolic incident he finds repre- sented. Thus also feelings, pronounced in music, may express themselves in a lofty manner that seems to elevate the hearer above the real and actual. Beet- hoven's Symphenies may be cited as works possesang ideal beauty in the highest de- gree." ..." The history of art tells Ds how, according to the time and the national influences brought to bear, one or other of the three elements of beauty predominated, and served as the basis of the productions. In music and paint- ing the characteristically beautiful is the first achievement which appears. In painting, it manifests iteelf in pictures of religious subjects ; in music, it appears • in the form of songs of the people. Italian music always leaned towards formal beauty ; (Jerman music, taken from a general point of view, inclined towards the characteristic; but in all great composers, whether Italian or Ger- man, there exists that ideal life which gives to works of art elevation, purity, and lasting fame." Comparing this classification with our own, we see that Herr Pauer^s " formal beauty " includes good relations of m.ea- sure and speed, of rhythmical proportion, of key and mode, of cadence, of response, &c. — that his " characteristic beauty " includes good development of theme, and of emotional expression and point---and that his " ideal beauty " is something be- yond the reach of analysis, at least for the elementary student. It is enough for him whether he is studying formal or characteristic beauty, to seek for the three great elements with which we started — Unity, Variety, and Point. 93. Classification of Musical Forms. — The different man- ners in which the elements of structural relation crystaliae into distinct Forms are very varied, and are difficult to classify. Forms are chiefly moulded by the necessities and the circum- stances which gave them birth, and these give them the names by which they are generally known — as Songs, Dances, Hymn-tunes, Oratorios, Operas, &c., &c. Under these titles we propose to study them, taking the simpler first, and showing how the larger and more complex Forms are only developments of the same general principles which ruled the smaller ones. 93*. Pure and AppUtd .—yLxiSical Forms are sometimes thus divided. Applied Forms are those in which the music is applied to something else, a.s dancing, marching, iwetry. Pure Forms are those in which the music is not limited by any Bueh outward circumstances. Still, to aome extent, the same Forms are used in truth cases. 9.3c. Sacred and Secular. —TsSMsLoaXYoTms are sometimes classified thus. But it is important to notice that music itself is neither one nor the other, but lends itself readily to both. It expresses the style of emotion, but not the subject. 98d. Thematic and Episodical:— Them- atic Forms are those which have a sus- tain€»d development of theme, like the Canon, the Fugue, and the Sonata. Epi«odiical Forms are those in which Digresdons are made, but also contin- ually coming back to the main idea of the music — as in the Hondo. There are some forms, however, which belong to neither of these classes, and some to both. 93e. Homophonic and Polyphonic. — Homophonic Forms are those in which the harmony, if any, is entirely sub- ordinated to the effect of one leading melody. Polyphonic Forms axe those in which the harmony has several or many independent parts. This is an important clasafleation, but relates rather to Blar- mony than to Form. 9y. Vocal and Instrumental. — Instru- mental music has a much wider compass than vocal music, and is capable of much finer rhythms and more difficult inter- vals. But both are amenable to the same general rules of Hosical Form. XWO-FOLD AND XHEEE-FOLD. THE CADENCE DESIGNS. 123 93^. Regular and Irregular. — Some pieces of music, like the Recitative, Pot Pourri, &c., are professedly without much relation of cadence or melody, and so on — without much form. If they Eossess any of these relations they may e termed Irregular Forms. Other Forms are only more or less Regular. Especial- ly is this the case with dramatic music, which necessarily follows the actions and passions and scenes of the drama as its principal work. But the principles of proportion and relation are parts of our human natiu-e, and therefore music naturally falls into some "Form" if it can. 93ft. Melodic and Harmonic. — It is strange that this should have been pro- posed as a classification of Musical Forms, because melody and harmony are so mixed up together in the structure of nearly every Form, that they can scarcely be said to divide one set of Forms from another. These words may classify the " internal relations" of most Forms, but do not divide into classes the complete Forms themselves. 93y. Biliary and Ternary, or Duplex and Triplex (the first used by Sir Gore Ouseley, the second by Hamilton in his "Catechism of Musical Ideas.") — These terms corres- pond with our Two-fold and Three-fold. This classification is the most important for us to bear in mind, because it is ap- plicaole to nearly all music, and because all other qualities of Musical Form ara built upon the rhythmical structure which this classification puts foremost. 94. Rhythmical Division and Cadence Design.— Fore- most among those general Principles of classification, around ■which the less essential relations cluster, are these two. First, that Musical Forms have a natural rhythmical division either into two parts or into three parts ; they do not divide into five parts or seven parts. They are either Two-fold Forms or Three- fold Forms. Second, that the central cadence of a tune, or that wliich (though not central) most strongly and clearly divides the tune and " answers " to the final cadence, indicates to some extent the character of the tune, and forms a pillar on which other musical designs lean. The first and favourite " cadence design " has ^D for its central cadence, the second has S, and the third D-^, D^, or D. A tune with any other central cadence is said to belong to " the fourth cadence design." So that we may ask of each Musical Form — First, What is its " Ehythmical Division? " and second, What is its " Cadence Design ? " 9-16. Cadence Design. — The middle ca- dence of a tune must necessarily have in it something of decision, and yet it must ht expectant of reply ; it must provide a contrast to the coming final cadence. Hence the subordinate cadences R F L are scarcely ever used in this place, and the D cadences, even in the "open" form, do not supply the contrast and ex- pectancy which is here required. The S cadence offers the best contrast to D in its own key, and the SD cadence the best contrast In a related key. The early Section or Sections in each of the Periods has commonly some subordinate cadence. This early cadence in the first Period is almost always in the Tonic, in order to establish the key in the ear; but it is almost always an "open" Tonic cadence, in order to prevent too marked a con- clusiveness, and to leave the mind free to move on. In the second Period the early cadence is very varied. If it is not S or SD, free use is made of the relative minor, or other striking but subordinate ca- dences. We may tabulate the Cadence Design in the major mode as follows. The student will supply the correspond- ing minor foEms. First Cadence Design. Ia.=D3 D5 FD Dfe S or L , Ib.^^D J1a..—J)^ D^ «D, S, seM or L , IIb.=D 124 XHEEE-FOLD FOEMS. TWO-FOLD FOKMS^ Second Cadence Design. Ia.=D3 D5 S L or D6 , Ib.=S IIa.='5D D D6 L F or ^^M , IIb.=D Third Cadence Design. Ia.=D S or ^D IIa.=S sd or L Ib.=D IIb.=D Fourth Cadence Design. Ia.=L3 or D3 IIa.=S3 or KL6 1Ib=D 95. Three-fold Forms. — Some of the Three-fold Forms are very simple and natural. They announce a musical thought, then give a second thought, which is its counterpart — its livelier and softer companion — and finally return to the first strong thought again. They exactly fulfil the idea which, according to Professor Marx, underlies all musical composition ; it is expressed in the formula " Eesx — Motion — Eest." 95?>. Examples. — ^The tune "Eousseau," p. 100, is an example of this. So are the Bonf^s " Life let us cherish," p. 101 ; "All through the night, j). 102 ; and the march " See the conquering hero," p. 104. Dances very commonly take this three- fold form. Many of Handel's songs also assume this shape. In the third part. however, they do not always repeat the first in exactly the same tone ; it is enough that the third part has a strong resem- blance to the first. The tune " Crofts." p. 81, is a three-fold tune, but its third Period loses strength and significance by giving us no reminiscence of the first. 96. Two-fold Forms. — The Two-fold Forms, equally with the Three-fold Forms, seek to satisfy the mind's desire for " Rest, Motion, Eest," — for " variety in unity." But they do it in a different way. There is seldom a decided repetition of the first subject at the end, but there is generally a reminiscence of it. The free and lively part, sometimes called " the free fantasia " (j'antazee'oj, does not occupy anything like one-third of the whole tune, but is commonly left to the beginning of the second half. The first half of the tune is generally taken up with two ideas, the second of them related to the first, and for the sake of variety, excitement, and expectancy, closing either with the Dominant Cadence, or in the Dominant Key. 96'<. Examples. — The times •• Mel- combe," p. 80; "Evelyn," p. SO ; "Can- nons," p. 81 ; " Innocents," p. 8-3 ; " Sharon," p. 84, are (rood examples of all these points. "Miiller," p. 82, is another example, the two divisions being, however, of unequal l>;ngth. Some of Handel's songs are two-fold, as "Every valley," p. 156. The Haydn or First Jlovement Form is the most complex and also the most perfect of the Two-fold Forms. EXPANSION OF FORMS. THR CHANT, 125 97. Simple and Extended Forms.— Some Musical Forma are mucli more extended than others ; and the wider a Musical Form extends tlio more it subdivides. Its Sections become Periods with sul)ordinato Sections, aud its Periods become Strains with subordinate Periods. It is well to study the Rimpler Forms first. 97c. Fxamjilf a.— Cnrnptire "Bach," p. 83, and " Eeay," p. 85, wliich are "Double- stanza" tunes, with the "Sinfjle-stanza" tunes " Melcombe," p. 80 ; " Evelyn," p. 80, &e. Tlie cadence which marks the middle of the tune in "Melcombe" and " Evelyn " is at the close of a Period. la "Bach," p. 83, and "Eeay," p. 85, it i? at the close of a Strain. See par. 746, above, where the cadences of these " ex- tended" Two-fold Forms are described. Such Arias as "Eveiy valley," p. 156; "Arm, arm, ye brave," and "With joy the impatient husbandman," cannot well be divided into Strains. They are simple times "expanded" by various Additions, Insertions, and other devices. On the other hand, long pieces, like some in the Haydn or First Movement Form are most conveniently treated in two separate Strains. But the numbering of the Penods continues throughout the mo-semcnt. See the Haydn " Finale," p. 207, and Beethoven's " First Movement?* p. 200. 976. Illustration. — Thus in statuary wo may have a single 'group presented to our study, like th-e well-known one of "Uuth and Naomi," or a gTOup of groups, like the Albert Memorial. Tlie shorter Foi-ms divide themselves into two or into three Periods, like Psalm-tunes and simple songs. Longer Forms divide themselves into two orinto three Strains, like marches, dances, and some glees. And still longer Forms divide themselves into two or twice two, or into three or twice three llovemenls, like sonatas, sjTnphonies, and some anthems. Such larger Movements may even include within themselves several shorter tunes, either of Two-fold or Threefold Form. In other words, the composition may be on a small plan, with few subdivisions, or on a large plan, with many subdivisions. The word " extend- ed" is also applied to tunes which are "simple" in their main sti-ucture, but whose different pai-ts are "expanded" by means of Introductions, Codas, Syra- piionies, Figures, and Runs. 98. The Chant Form.— The essentials of the Chant Form are — first, a Recitation-tone (which may be long or short, accord- ing to the words) ; and second, a Cadence-tone or Cadence-phrase, to which is sometimes added a toiie or two at the beginning, commonly called the Preface. By putting together two such Recitations and Cadences something like Musical Form may be produced. These can at least contain simple relations of Key, of Rhythm, and. of Cadence. 82; " Teacher's Manual," pp. 207 to 216; and " Clapton Park Psalter." 98c. Examples. — The following is one of the oldest of what are called Gregorian Tones. But it is as old as human natiu-e. Its intonations may be heard in the prayei-a of the Society of Friends, in the sermons of "Welsh preachers, and in some of the street cries. The " hold " marks the Recitation-tone in both notation?. KEY A. Preface. Recit. Cad. Recit. Cad. [\sr.\^\^ |r :d ||'d|t,:d |l,:s,Jj 9S&. The Compromise. — The practice of clianting is a compromise between Speech and Song. The Recitation-tone obeys the laws, in pulse and accent, of excited public speech. The Cadence obeys the laws of regular measured music, and generally falls into the two-pulse mea- sure. It should be noticed that wide leaps from the Recitation to the Cadence, and wide leaps within the Cadence detract from the elocutionary character of the chant, and that Recitation-tones placed too high or too low for their respective v.oices make the chant impracticable for the congregation. Chant writers, how- ever, are tempted to make as much "pretty tune" as possible, and so to break these natural laws. For the theory and practice of good recitation in chant- ing, see " Standard Course," pp. 35, 63, 47, 126 THE TEOTTE AUTD ANOLICAW FORMS. KTEIB AND SANCTU8. Mr. Troyte has accustomed us to the following Chant Form, which is divisible into two Periods of two Sections each. KEY Bfe. The Anglican Chant Form, chiefly used in Eng-land since TaUis' time, is either sing-le or double. The single chant has only two Sections, the first containing a •Eecitation-tone (without preface), and a Cadence of two two-pulse measui-es ; and the second, a Recitation-tone, and Cadence of three two-pulse measures. The double chant doubles this Form, setting up a proper relation of cadences, just as the tune "Bach," p. 83, doubles the Form of the short metre psalm-time. This Angli- can Form has become so popular, and has so entirely banished all other Forms, that there must be something good in it. Its alternation of two-measure and three- measure cadences seems irregular. But the time-length of Sections must neces- sarily be irregular in a chant; and, the second cadence being the more impertant of the two, it is natiiral that it should ba "longer drawn out." It is so with the " intonations " of excited public speakers ; the more conclusive their sentence-ending the longer their "intonations." SINGLE CHANT. KBY P. LOWELI. MASOy. /r\ /TV m If :m ir :-|! m Is ;f loi :r |ni :- 11 ^ggi^ BOUBLE CttANT. KBY F. RoBrNSO.V. s |d':l Is :-||ci Ifets Is ;fe|s :- s |f :ni 11 :- lis If :ni Ir :r Id : ^^psi^sa 99. The Kyrie and Sanctus Forms.— These are short times applied to definite -words. The words are such as allow the music to be divisible into two 'parts, and these are just sufficiently extended to shew Unity of Key, and Contrast of Cadence. 996. Examples. — The following are I harmony because it is not in this case examples. We have not printed the | essential to the Form. KEY Q. Id :r in id.tJl, I Lord.liave'niCTcynp-l on KYRIE. |s, -.d.till, :t, |d :r us, aadin-l clineour hearts to m :r |d : — keep this law. SANCTUB. KEY F. Note. — As commonly written, sufficient time is not given to the close of the first Section to seotire ihe balance of rhythm. It is here given as it is naturally sung. /Id :- td tr :- :r in ;-.fe:s |1 :s rfe Is :- / I Ho - ly. Ho - ly, | Ho - ly, Lord God of | Hosts, J. Davy. Died 1824. THE HTMIT-TtrNE. METHES OP POETRY. 127 :f m :s 11 :- rs.fim -.f:g Is I Heaven and earth are | fnll of the ma - jesty | of :- tm |m :r : i Thy glo - ry. ) Im :- :r |d :- :d II :- ;1 |s :- I Glo - ry be to | Thee, O Lord f :- most high. &=:^=t= ^^i^^E^^g p^^^^i^^^^^^m f^^ 100. The Hymn-tune Form.— The Hymn-time is a Musical Form wliicli can be sung to the successive stanzas of the same hymn, and to all the stanzas of other hymns of the same character. Its Form is to a large extent fashioned according to the metre of the hymn to which it is used ; it is, therefore, necessary for the student to understand the metres of poetry. And as there is no Musical Form more generally used, or used for higher pui'poses than the Hymn-tune, the student should not spare pains to master this subject. 1006. The Metres of Poetry.— A. line of poetry is divided by its strong accents into Feet, thus — "The sun upon the laJce is low," is divisible into four feet, each having a weak follovped by a strong accent. Every foot of this kind is called an lanvhus. "Euer let theyancy roam," contains four feet, each of which has a strong followed by a weak accent. Every siicli foot is called a Tro'chee (Troa"kee.) "Oyer the moiuitains and oyer the waves," is divisible into four feet, each of which has a strong followed by two weak ac- cents. Every foot of this kind is called a Vac'ti/l. "We bunei him darkly at dead of night," is divisible into four feet having with one exception a strong accent with a weak accent on either side of it. Every foot of this kind is called an Am'phibrac. Some- times for emphasis, and at the ends of lines, the weak accent following the strong is omitted, as above after "dead" and " night." " He is gone on the mountain," is divisible into two feet (with an addi- tional syllable), each of which has a strong accent preceded by two weak ac- cents. Eveiy foot of this Hnd is called an Anapae'st. The additional syllable may be regarded as the beginning of another foot, the rest of which is omitted to allow a pause of emphasis. Metres may, therefore, be classified as lam'bic, Trocha'ic, Dactyllic, Amphi- brac'ic, and Anapae"stic. This subject is treated in "Teacher's Manual," pp. 318 to 326, and more largely in "Construction Exercises," pp. 78 to 89. The learner must not allow himself to be confused with the in-ogularity of metres, which is allowable — is even a pleasant varietj- — in poetry which has to be read; but ought not to be admitted (as it often is) in that which has to be sung to the stanza tune-form. Thus in an Iambic metre we may often find a line beginning with a Tro'chee and lambua, thus — ^^Come to the house," which, however, we are obliged to sing — "Come to the house of God." In considering the spirit of metres, these general laws may be noticed — ^Ist, That a Une shorter than the rest requires what the elocutionists call a "pause of emphasis" after it ; 2nd, that the com- mencement of a line with a Tro'chee rather than an lam'bus, implies the spirit 128 ANALYSIS OF METKE AND EMOTIONAL CLASS. of abruptness and energy ; 3rd, That the DactyVlic and Amphiftacic metres are more light and elegant, although they may be adapted to solemn sentiment. 100c. Anaiyais of Metre and Emotionnl Class. — In analysing metres, the student will answer the following questions — 1st. What is the number of lines in a verse or stanza ? 2nd. How do the accents run ? Or in other words, "UTiat are the feet— Iam- bic, Trocha-ic, &c. ? 3rd. What is the number of syllables in each line ? 101. The Two-fold Hymn-Tune Form.— The number of the lines and the arrangement of rhymes in the great majority of poetic stanzas requires a two-iold form in the music. This form is commonly composed of two Periods, each Period being divisible into two Sections. 4th. How do the lines rh\Tne with one another? Are they "alternate," or "two rhymes, two rhymes, and two rhymes," or "three rhymes and three rhymes," or first with second lines, fomth -ivith fifth lines, and third with SLxth lines, and so on ? While the student is analysing the meta-e he will find it a fine inteUectual study to answer also for each hvmn or aong this fifth question. 6th. What is the emotional class— bold and spuited ? grand ; cheerful ! solemn ' and neutral and changing » 101&. Examples.— The Two-fold Forms in commonest use are here shown in con- nection with a variety of metres. ST. FTJLBERT. Common Metre. First Two-fold Form, or Two-fold Form with First Cadence Design. Note.— In CM. the close of the second line in the music has to be lengthened in order to secure a rh>-thmical balance of one Section with another, and this length- ening of the last tone corresponds with the "rhetorical pause" which is generally demanded by the reader in that place. It is Dr. Macfarren's suggestion — carried out in the Anglican Tune Book— that the stiong (not the medium) pulse should fall on the cadence-tone ; and for the sake of securing this, he commences a tune in four-pulse measure on the second pulse instead ot the fourth pulse as is usual. This is certainly an improvement in Long Metre tunes, but in Common Metre tunes it strikes the central cadence KEY E. "•.8 Is :d ir :1 Is :f of the tune (which is far more important than the first cadence) with a medium accent instead of a strong one. In Short Metre this plan would take away the strong accent from both iinal and central cadences. It is better, therefore, to be- gin four-pulse Common Metre and Short Metre tunes on the fourth pulse and not on the second. Some one may suggest, "Why not write these tunes in three- pulse mea.sure instead of six-pulse, and in two-pulse instead of four-pulse?" The answer is that we have got into the habit of singing hymn-tunes quickly, and that directly we sing quickly, the medium pulses vdW make their appearance. In spite of ourselves we must make a difi'er- ence between the accents. The cadences are not always indi- cated by the melody alone. Thus, "St. Fulbert " might be harmonized as the Second Two-fold Form, or as the First. We name the examples according to the harmonies in the books before us. Dr. Gadn'ti.f.tt. In :s |1 :d' |t The head that once was crowned with thorns Is crowned T^ith glory now ; A royal diadem adorns The mighty Victor's brow. THE TWO-FOLn HYMN-TUNE FORM. 129 Common Metre. KKY Eb. HARRTNGTON. First Two-fold Form. De. HABRHfOTOW. |s Id^ :1 |sjf :m If^^s :1 |ljs lis Is :fe:8 |ni.l:s :fe|s :- :- |- :- 1 |r Isjf :ni jmjr ;d U^-i :m jl :- lis Id' :t :d'|r.f :ni :r Id :- :- |- :- There is a land of pure delight, Where saints immortal reign ; Infinite day excludes the night, And pleasures banish pain. ST. AGKES, DURHAM. Common Metre. First Two-fold Form. Rev. J. B. Dykks, Mus. Doc. NoTB. — In singing the following beau- ) tiful tune by Dr. Dykes, the ear naturally demands a longer rest at the end of the second Section, and in practice generally gets it, so securing the true balance of KlY G. rhythm. The Dactyllic opening of each Section has an exciting eifect, and is well adapted to some Iambic verses which have a corresponding irregularity. m :ni -.m If ■•t, Id :s, :s, m :- :r r :- :- Mf :f :n Ir :- :d It,:- :1, Is,:- :- lis, :1, :d Im :- :r Id :- :- Jesus, the very thought of Thee With sweetness fills my breast : But sweeter far Thy face to see, And in Thy presence rest. g^^^^g^iilijppi^^i^gj^i DENBIGH. Long Metre, First Two-fold Form Note. — The L.M. tunes have no short- ened lines, and allow no pauses, the endings of lines can only be .shewn KEY E. Dr. Gaunti.ktt. musically by an abrupt staccato delivery of the last tone. ;s im :s jd :m If :1 1' !!« rest, No \n :1 Ife ;s It :1 1^ II breast : (Sweet is tlie day ot aa . cred raor- tal care shall seize my :£ in :r |d :d' It :1 |3 in If :9 Im :r itn :r I- II sound.] Oh may my heart in tune be fminri. tike Da - viil'g harp of lol - emn 130 THE HSTRES OF POETET, My dear Eedeemer, and my Lord, I read my duty in Thy word ; But in Thy life the law appears Drawn out in living characters. Short Metre. Note. — In good Short Metre stanzas there is a rhetorical pause — a pause which casts emphasis behind it — at the end of the first and second lines, the third line HOLYEOOD. First Two-fold Form. KBY E!J. IS -.l |i running passionately and without pause into the fourth. These rhetorical pauses are represented in the music by length- ened tones. 11 :d' |t ;1 s :— I — :1 Id' If :1 IS :f jt, :t, I- ^gP^tX±±^=S:JJEi^ ^ $ ^ 1"=^ 'JOZ i^ Our day of praise is done ; The evening shadows fall ; But pass not from us with the sun, True Light that Ughtenest aU. [To God the only wise, Our Saviour and our King, Let all the saints below the skies Their himible praises bring.] SIGILLU8. 6.6.6.6. KEV EI7. ( :d Ir :tn |f :r [m :— | f.Eb. First Two-fold Form. Sigillus, 1657. Bfe.t. ^d |r -.m |f :r \m :— |— I I dare not choose my lot ; I would not if I might : Choose Thou for me, my God ; So shaU I walk aright. AlTD RHYTHMIC PROPOETIONB OP TUWE8. I SI f.«.7.6. HEIDELBERG. KEY E. Third Two-fold Form. M. Vulpics, 1609. {:d [:>i :r \m :1 Is ;— |m 111 Is :f \m :r Im :— \— 1; B.t. f.E. |:»d |r :iti |f -.m |r :— jd ll'iHilf :ni |r :r Id :— j— 11 God is my strong Balvation ; What foe have I to fear ? In darkness and temptation, My light, my help is near. 7.7.8.7.7.7.8.7. GRASMERE. KEY D. first Two-fold Form. Edwin Moss. { :d |d :-.d im :s |d' :— |t [|1 js :m |r :f If :— |m I A.t. I :d |d :-.d jm t^d |f :f |m ||s |f :r |d it. Id :— |d I f.D. r :— ir |:ds It :d' |r' :f If :— \m lid' It :1 |s :1 h I :d Id :-.d iR :s Id' :d' |t Ml Is :ni |f :r Ir :— |d || 3eI3ee^ gfeg=S;Eg^ By faith we see the glory To which Thou shalt restore us ; The world despise. For that high prize Which Thou hast set before us ; And, if Thou count us worthy, We each, as dying Stephen, ShaU see Thee stand. At God's right hand. To take us up to heaven 132 THE THUEE-POLT) HTSry-TTTNT: FORM!. 7.7.7.7. GIBBONS. KET F. First Tmo-fold Hymn-tune Fnrm. Orlaxdo Gibboss. f:Pi :f Is :1 |r :r |m :— ||s :1 |t :d' |1 :l |s :— <:« vf Is :1 'f '■''^ |r :— lis :f.nilr :n ir :r Id :— Jesns, Lorfl ! we look to Thee ; Let us in Thy name agree ; Show Thyself the Prince of Peace; Bid nnr strifes for ever cease. 8 78., or 4 7a. D. KKT G. (|d :d |t. :s, |1, f|d :d |t, :s, |1, ^in !f |s :d |t, ||d :d |r :r \m ZTJETCH Second Tioo-fold Form. Darmstadt Cantional, 1687. :f ifi :in |r f \m :m ir r |d :d It, d |d :t, Id :t, I* '.— ir :m 1^ ■■ :t, 1^ •- (In, :m If : :d V •- ir •.m r ■ :m V :- ir ;:7i Ir ; \f=LJXj-i::^=^^ i \- i -d — r-d- — I M 1- p^ig J.^=j^za=i ml d r^- Hail, the day that pees Him rise. Ravished from our wishfiil eyes ! Christ, awhile to mortals given, Re-aacends His native heaven. ■1 1- There the g'lorioxis triumph waits ; Lift your heads, eternal g'ates : "Wide unfold the radiant scene ; Take the King of Glory in. 102. The Three-fold Hymn-tune Form.— This Form is commonly composed of three Periods, each divisible into two or three Sections. It is applied to those six-line hymns whose rhymes divide them into three parts. The first part (which, except in extended tunes, is a Period) is often repeated in the METKES OF POETRT. 133 bticond part, as iu " Laviugton," below, and " Holstein," p. 136, or in the thii-d i)art, as in " Zinzendorf," p. 137. The principal " dividing," although not central. Cadence is at the end of the second Period, and it is generally on ^D, sometimes on the Relative Minor.* The Dominant Cadence is little used in that place. For in tunes of this length it does not give contrast enough for the great "dividing" Cadence of the tune: a change of Key or Mode is desired by the ear. The Tonic Cadence (as in "St. John") is unsuitable; it sounds like a premature close. We may, however, characteiize the Thi'ee-fold Forms by means of their "dividing" Cadences in the same manner as the Two- fold. See pp. 123, 124. Bi6.8»6.8.6., or 6 lines CM. KEY F. |:d.,r|in :m.,f|s ;1 I LAVINGTON. Second Three-fold Foim. 1 :-.f|m |lni.,fjs :d |f :ki ■'- I- |:d.,rl[ti :in.,f|s :1 Is :-.f|iii |ji'i.,f|s :d |f :m Ir :— |- »:[ii.,fls :d' |t :1 Is :-.f|iTi ||m.,f|8 :d.,r|(>i ;r Id :— |- ^S^^^^EE^ ^^^^ 5=Biq^ m z=B-ziM-: Father, I know that all my life Is portioned out for me ; And the changes that are sure to come I do not fear to see ; But I ask Thee for a present mind. Intent on pleasing Thee. [O magnify the Lord with me ; Come, .I'oin His name to bless : To Him did I in trouble flee ; He saved me from distress. O let Him then your refuge be, Nor shall you fail success.] PEEPAKATION. First Three-fold Form. E. Silas. ■mm=^33s^^m^^^. --^ pi ^ :r — r-r-1: iSi^^^ Ejr ;S: =|5=1: ^^m t=rt: • See " Aspii'ation," p. 136. 134 THE THEEB-FOLD HTMN-TUNE FORM. KBT D. I -.8 jm :-.f(8 :1 Is :-.f|f [Is Im :d' |t :d|^ 11 :— |— A.t. |:ir Is :-.r|rti :d Ir :n.r|d 111, Is, :!, |t, :r Id :— — J f.D. |:s,r|n :-.r|8 :b If :-.in|l 111 It :d' \m :f is :— |r :m.rld :— |- Another week has i>a8ged away, "With all its busy cares ; And now, before Thy Holy Day, With its glad praise and prayers, We rest awhile life's woary oar, And think of the eternal diore. 6.6.6.6.8.8. KEY E(2. ST. JOHN. TKrd Three-fold Form. J :d \m :m |s :s Id' ;— |— lid' It :1 |9 :fe Is :— | — j:8 11 :t |d' :1 Is :— |— lis If :m |r :r Id :- |— I id Id :r (m :d ]m :f |s lis 11 :t |d' :d' Ir' :t d' Awake, ye saints, awake. And hail the sacred day ; In loftiest songs of praise Yonr joyful homage pay. Come, bless the day your God hath blest, The type of heaven's eternal rest. PILGRIMAGE. 6.6.8.6.8.7. Third Three-fold Form. NoTs. — Where the rhythm changes | the second Period by one pulse, and so from Iambic to Trochaic, the beginning gives a feeling of haste, which falls in of the third Period overlaps the end of | with the natural sentiment of the metre. KEY F. |:s, |d :t, Id :r |n :— |— jjtvi |f :-.f|fn :ni |r :- ,— || I :J' h :m (f :8 If im |r lid |d ;d |r -.t, Id :— l| j |8 ;1 11 :s |f :ni In :r jld ■t, ll, :f |tn :r Id :— |— || {CBTBES OF POSTBT. 13& To Canaan's sacred bound We haste with songs of joy, Where peace and liberty are found, And sweets that never cloy. Hallelujah ! Praise to our redeeming God. 6.6.7.7.7.7, ASPIRATION. Note. — Differing from most of the other Three-fold metres, this " Wesley " meti'e requires that the music should make its great dividing place at the end of the first Period instead of the second. It is there that the bold Trochaic rhythm bursts in upon the Iambic, and the mood changes KKT Efe. :a m Id m • ~ I- from quiet meditation to sudden enthu- siasm and resolve. Hence SD or 8 or sejl/ commonly marks the ending of the first Period, and the ending of the second has one of the " open " D cadences, un- less there is a continuance of the new key. |in BI2.t. irs, :d It, :r |d :n) 11, :— 111, :f In :r |d it. Id f.Et I'l :n If :f |s :r Im :— llm -.m |m :f |in :r Id :— |- f^^^E^^^^nm^jE^^^. ^k^i^^m^EEfE^^msi^^m^EE^^^^ r 1- ^- ¥S:.P= '^^^■. =1=:^= =3^^1i :5)=it O, that our life might be One looking up to Thee ! Ever hasting to the day When our eyes shall see Thee near ; Come, Redeemer, come away, Glorious in Thy saints appear. 136 THE THKEE-rOLD HTMN-TUHE FORM. MIDDLETON. First Three-fold Form. Db. Gaujtlbtt. 6 lines 7s. KEY F. < IS :t. Id :m \r :f Im :— Mm :f Is :1 |t :d' r :— C.t, rs :d' 11 :t |d' :r' It :- lit :d' If :pi' |m' :r' Id' :- f.F. ||d's:d II :-.l|s :d If If :8 In ;f ir :r ,d :— Not in anything we do, [From the cross uplifted high, Thought that's pure, or word that's Uue, Where the Sa^aour deigns to die. Saviour, would we put our trust : What melodious sounds we hear, Fran as vapour, vile as dust ; Bursting on the ravished ear :— All that flatters we disown : Love's Adeeming work is done. Righteousness is Thine alone. Come and welcome,— sinner, come !] HOLSTEIN. Third Three-fold Form. ( \m :d |r :s |d :r It, :s, 111, :t| Id :d |r :s Im 8.7.8.7.7.7. KEY G. Chorale by J. C. Bagb, 1680. \ |m :d Ir :s |d :r It, :s. Ill, it. Id -.d |r :8 Im J |m ".d Ir :8 |s :fe Is :— 111 :s Im :s |r :r Id i q=F=t ;=^ j4=^r J *ii :x:z)=iq=i: $ ^=n==^ =t==P ^^^^e^ ^t J ml ■^- God has turned my grief to gladness; He has made my heart rejoice ; I, who lately pined in sadn&ss, Now can raise my thankful voice ; Sweet it is the saints to join. Sweet to call their Saviour mine. THE SPKCIAL HYMN-TUNK. 137 6.6.8.8.5.5. KEY A. J Id .d :t, ZTNZENDORF. Fourth Three-fold Form. (IlB=«eJ/). Adam Dubsk. r : — : lid .r :ni :r Id : — : Im .f :s :f id.d :ti :d m .r in :r Id .r :m :r Id .r ;m :r jd.t, :d Id :- ^g^-=J3=^^ :=Js=.- ;^=s: :U— t^—*-' :tc=5- m ■^ ^. ^^^^. i=^ii^^ "WTien we seek relief From a long-felt grief, WTien oppressed by new temptations^ Lord, increase and perfect patience ; Show us that bright sliore Where we weep no mora. iE 103. The Special Hymn-tune Form. — Most hymDs vary the words with every successive stanza. The music for them can, therefore, only express the genercd style of sentiment belonging to the poetry. But some hymns have the speciality of repeating the same words, or nearly the same words, in a certain line of eveiy stamza. And for these hymns, tunes may be made in which sj^ecial musical expression is given to the repeated line. 1036. Examples. — The " Easter Hymn " with the refrain or bm-den "Hallelujah" at the end of each line, and " Miles' Lane " with the refrain " Crown Him Lord of all" at the end of each verse ai'e familiar examples. Redhead's tune to " When our heads are bowed with woe," with its beautiful "burden." KEY C. ( [n :r |r :in If :-.f |pi :— 11 ( ! Je - BUS, Son of | Ma - ry, hear. 1 1 is ncjt only specially suitable for that hymn, but also for a veiy few other and similar hymns. Dr. Gauntlett has wi-itten a special tune for the hymn in which every verse begins "Jesus lives." He adapts these words to the following bold phrase in unison. KEY C. SI : (m :d Is •" •11 Je - sua lives. r^^- The following is another specunen of a "burden" Je(7inntn^ each verse of ahymn. The words are not exactly alike in each verse, but ai'e similar in sentiment, each being supposed to express the voice of Jesus. 'To this Dr. Dykes has written a special hymn-tune, opening with the following beautiful declamation by all the men's voices. 138 THU PAiT-SONO FORM. K«r G. ,|d :— Id td |1, :-.t,ld :d 11 I "Come jun-to me, yel weary, || || :r ; m :d |r :-.d|d :— 11 ! And I will give yonl rest." II IPI^^EE^^ zzsz 32=22: E^S^ ertz&=s2=^= 103c. History. — Thougli harmonized hymn-tunes are amon^ the simplest of Musical Forms, they are far from being the oldest. Their history does not begin till the period of the Reformation. There existed many fine Latin and Greek tunes in the Catholic Church from the earliest days, but it was the necessity of providing' harmony for great masses of voice which led to the study of plain chords as dis- tingTiifihed from the fugal and cnunterpcinl style of harmony which had hitherto pre- vailed. This style was attempted in a few cases (see the tunes of John Knox's Psalter, which are said to be "in Re- ports"') but they were found too difficult for the heavily moving voice of the multitudes who were then brought to- gether. At first, and for a long time, attempts were made to place one or two parts above the melody, which were called Treble and Alto, and were sung by select voices, other select voices singing Bass, and the Tenor voices, along with the majss of the women's voices, taking the Melody. But these accompaniments ahove the melody were found distracting to the ear unless they were light and distant. Fin- ally, both in the Catholic and Protestant Churches it was found desirable to place all the parts underneath the melody, and with this view, to leave the melody as much as possible to boys' and women's voices. But even now harmonies cannot be well and easily sung in congregations unless the people and their children are systematically taught the art of reading 104. The Part-Song Form.— This, like the Hymn-tune Form, is adapted to many voices and to several verses, but it is usually set to secular poetry. It is generally distinguished by some speciality of expression which would make it difficult to take the words of one Part-song and adapt them to the music of another, even though they were the same metre. The true Part-song is unaccompanied ; and when accompaniments are printed, it is usually with the view of helping the learner, not the performer. 1046. Examples. — The early example from Thomas Ford, expressiog the senti- ments of "love at first sight," might be, for Musical Form, a Long Metre Psalm- tune. A more modem writer would have put an " open " cadence at the end of the first Section, and would have reserved his first flat key for the third Section. He would probably have used the first sharp key, or the Dominant cadence, for the principal dividing place of the tune. And these arrangements could have been made more expressive of the words. Neverthele.ss, we see in the piece the old Madrigalian spirit which studied the sentiments of the words as they arose, without caring much for the relation of one line to another. And we see also the rhythmic relation of taa-aatai at the beginning of each Section. There is some melodic imitation also between the opening of the second and first lines, and the closing of the second and Last lines. Although the Part-song is intended for several verses, it is not intended, like the Hymn-tune, for many poems. It is gener- ally confined to one. Hence it very fre- quently, like the special Hymn-tunes, adds a Refrain or Coda. See Beay'a " Dawn of day," and Pearsall's " O who will o'er the downs." It occasionally makes slight changes, especially in the close of the last verse. See the rhythmic change in Moschelles' " The Village Chorister," just before the Coda, as well as the I instead of m in "O who will o'er." Mendelssohn and Pinsuti have also taught us the art of interrupting the flow of the melody for little imitative vocal sym- phonies, and for soli duet and trio pas- sages ; they are masters also of the Coda. But it is a characteristic of the Simple, as di.stinguished from the Extended Part- song, that all the verses are alike. 105c. History. — The Part-song, with plain chords (as distinguished from the fugal style oi the Madrigal) began to show itself soon after the Hymn-tune. Forde, at the beginning of the seven- THE ELIZABETHAN PAET-SONO. 139 teenth century, ■wrote " Since first I saw your face," which has very little of the Madrigal in it, as well as the example here iJrinted. The Form does not selm to have been much used till two hundred years after, when Spoflforth ^v^ote " My dear mistress " for men's voices. At the same time, that is about the beg'inning' of this century, many English compositions appeared under the title of Harmonized iUrs or Glees, which were adapted to several verses and many voices to each part. But it remained for the Germans, beginning with the G«rman-Swiss Niigeli, to popularize this style of music. He and the Zurich clergyman Pfeiflfer began by propagating an easy method of teacldng to sing, much like our own. They pro- moted school music, and established Singing Societies throughout Swltierland and Germany. The popularity of tiiese Sang-verein, connected as diey were with social enjoyments, created a demand for such music, and nearly all the best G«r- man composers have done something to supply it. At first the habits of German society which separate the sexes in their evening meetings, made it necessary to write nearly all this music for men's voices. But manners are mending there, as well as here, and the number of mixed- voiced choral unions is constantly on the increase. We hope this will not lead the Germans to neglect the high tenor voice of the thin register, as the English have done. Of late years oui- English composers have contributed largely to the stock of modem Part-songs. THERE IS A LADIE SWEETE AND KIND. KEY G. d [1. There is :n, '.S [2. Her :d a La - die .f,|S, :d s :- .s |s :g jes - ture,mo - tions, d :- .d Id :d, f :r |d : — sweeteand kind, d :t, Id • — and her smiles, f. :s, Id, :- Thomas Fordb (1607). f.C. tM |d' :-.r' i "Wasnev - er I :^{r |1 :-.s,f( :tafl |p^i ._ J.I / Her Witt, her ] •.^r |1, :-.t, / 1 -.- I mind; de :— I guiles; 1. : G.t. cres. I Be- i"" s but see .1, It, guiles my heart, d ;- .d IS, her J .t, / d :r im :1 pass-ing by. And 1, :t, |d :d f :-.s |iti :f know not why. And f. :r, Id, :f. :-.8|f yet d yet d I love .t,|r her :d tiU d I die. :t, |d .m |r :in.f s :-.f im I love .8, It, her :d till I die. :s, |d. - :- I 140 THE MADEIGAX AND THE MOTExT. 106. The Extended Part-song Form.— Modern Part-songa have commonly taken a more extended form. The last verse ia often varied in its musical expression. Sometimes the middle verse has a strikingly different expression from that which pre- cedes it and that which follows. Sometimes a solo with humming accompaniment is introduced into the piece. And by various other Additions and Insertions the Part-song is "extended." 1056. Examples. — Typical examples among the best-known Extended Part- songs are — Henry Smart's " Xatiu-e's Praise," in which there is a marked alter- ation at the beginning of the last verse, which prepai'es the mind all the better to welcome the principal subject at the close ; Mendelssohn's " Morning Prayer," and Leslie's " Pilgrims," in which the la«t Terse is entirely re-harmonized ; Mac- farren's " Three Fishers," in which the third verse is thrown into the Tonic Minor, and otherwise much changed ; Brinley Richards' "Let the hills resound," in which the style of a March, with its "relief" strain, is adopted; Mendelssohn's "Skylark," which is moulded Uke a Canon • Jackson's (of Masham) " O the flowei7 month of June," which is thrown into the style of a waltz. 106. The Madrigal and the Motett.— These were con- temporary Forms — the first for secular, and the second for sacred vocal music. Their characteristics are — First, that they are written in the old fugal and contrapuntal style of harmony ; second, that they are adapted for more than one voice to each part; and third, that they are generally suitable for only one set of words. It may also be said in reference to the Madrigal that it commonly ends -with some expressive thought, on which the mind and ear delight to dwell. The Motett was generally set to prose words, and the Madrigal to verse. The word " Motett " has since been used for sacred music with much more modern harmonies. 1066. ExaiiipUs. — " Flora gave me fair- est flowers," p. 142, is a good example of this style. In Ll a quiet, retlective t^eme moving downward, with the rhythm taa -AATAi is introduced by 2nd S. and T., and is immediately echoed by 1st S. and C. ANAlTSIfl. COXTN-TERPOINT. BALI,T5T. 141 In more rapid rhythm. Overlapping the cadence of this phrase, the Bass strikes in with an imitation in contrary motion, and before half a pulse is over, the 1st 8., 2nd B., and C, give utterance to the same imitation, by similar or contrary motion, and with the passionate feeUng which syncopation expresses. This ■ Cadence properly ends with a Soh Cadence, but the C. part, with the fondness for "over- lapping" which was common in Madri- gals, carries over its cadence-tone into the Lah chord with which the next Sec- tion begins. In Ib a new theme enters, livelier and with an upward rhythm. It is tossed about from part to part, and imitated both in similar and contrary motion. In Ic we have n. repetition of Ib, only with the parte more " broken up," and with some differences of accent, the S. especially, emphasizing the word " fair." Before the cadence of this Section is fairly completed, IIa bursts in with hasty syncopation to renew the first meditative theme with only three of the higher voices, and then with three of the lower voices, and in contrary motion, re- peats the theme in a rising cadence, which is immediately " overlapped " by the opening of the next Section. This re- petition of the theme of Ia in Ha gives a feeling of unity to the piece, which we do not commonly expect to find in an ancient Madrigal. IIb, like Ib, introduces a live- lier theme in contrary motion to the last; and He, like Ic, repeats that theme with more broken parts, and with an expres- sive phrase of syncopation in the strongest part of the Tenor voice. It should be noticed that wherever there is an " over- lapping" of one Section by another, we place our marks for Period and Section, directly over the beginning of the new Section, disregarding the fact that the former Section is not yet complete ; and in counting the measures of which a Section consists, we necessarily reckon the " overlapping " measures and pulses twice over. Thus, in this case, IIa con- sists of six measures, Hb of five measures, and He of six measures. In the second strain Va introduces a merry theme, which is annoimced by the 1st S., and taken up successively in descending entries by C, T., and 2nd S., and B., in regular fugal style. Vb announces the same theme by the B., which is taken up in ' ascending entries by T., 1st S., and 2nd S. ■ VX A introduces a yet merrier theme more often repeated. It is annoimced by the ] S, and teken up after one pulse by C., after another by 2nd 8, and after another by T., the B. only giving the roots of the chords. VIb is an imitation of VIa one step lower, after the manner of sequence. VIa is in the tender minor of first flat key. VIb, though a step lower, moves into the siinshine of the major mode. The "point" in this Madrigal seems to be on the words " She was pleased," and the second part is added simply to express the abandonment of joy, in the Ballet style. The following Madrigals are worthy of special study — Festa's Down in a flow'ry vale," Heporter 180, with its point on the words " But if thy purse be empty," &c. ; Gibbon's " Silver Swan," Reporter 274, with its point on the words " More geese than swans," &c. ; Edwards' " In going to my lonesome bed," Reporter 68, with its point on the words "The falling out," &c. The name Madrigal is often given to what should be called Elizabethan Part-songs, because they have very little fugal imitation. Good examples of the old Motett style are Palestrina's " O Jerusalem," Reporter 206 ; Tallis' " Hear the voice," Reporter 207 ; and Palestrina's "0 praise theLord," Reporter 207. In more modem days tie word Motett is often used abroad for what we in England should call the Anthem, a much more varied, as well as extended Form. lOec. Ballet. — Some Madrigals, like Morley's "My bonnie lass," Reporter 462; and " What saith my dainty darling," Reporter 162, have no special " point," but finish with lively "fa la" passages. They were often sung to help the dancers in social cii-cles where there was no in- strument. Hence they were called Ballets. lOQd. History. — Counterpoint, or the art of setting one or more notes or " points " " counter " or against another, was de- veloped in the wealthy Netherlands by Orlando di Lasso and others (in the six- teenth century) , and brought to perfection by Palestrina in Rome soon after. This system of harmony taught the ear to hsten, not to the full chords striking the ear at once, but to the flow of the "parts" moving in various relations to one an- other. It abounded in fugal iiuitations, briefly carried out, and often changing to new themes. Unity (in the relation of themes) was not insisted on. It was thought enough to go from one theme to another, only taking care, as Palestrina always did, that each new theme should express the new idea of the words. Rhythmical proportion was not studied, and even the cadences, which we now consider so essential to the proper divi- sion of the music, were not understood. The effects introduced by changes of key had not been explored, and only a few simple changes of mode were employed. The composer had to rely on his power of bringing out the simple mental effects of the tones of the scale, and the frequent "separate entry" of the themes helped him in doing this. 142 THE MADRIGAL. KBY Bt2. [lA.] FLORA GAVE ME FAIREST FLOWERS. Moderato. S.S.C.T.B. John- Wilbye, a.d. 1609. n : - .r Flo ra d : - .t, Ho ra m .,r :d .d Flo-ra gave me d :1. gave me d| .,i'|:ni| .f| Flo-ra gave me 1, .,l,:d .1, gave me fairest t, .d :r faii-est flow - r .d :d .t, fairest flow - s, .m, :r| fairest flow - s, :3, flow - era. m 3 : - .f ers, d Flo tn : _ ra .f ers, d, Flo d : - ra ■1. ers, 8, Flo d ra Flo d, ra • r, m .r :d .d gave me fairest s .f :m .m gave me fairest I 8, .r, :r>i, .,f/ gave me fairest j gave me fairest m, .tg :d, .d| 6 t. flow :t, • ers, flow - ers, s, ; — flow t, :t, flow - era. [IB.] d .,r :n None so fair, :d .,r None so ti\, :ni| .,f| ers, None so l,.l :s None so fair, 1, .,t.:d m .,f :s none so fair, n :m .,f fail', none so 3i :s, .,1, fair, none so s .,f :i'i none so fair, di .,r,:m, 8, .,l,:t, .d none so fail- in 3 :s, .,1 fair, none so t, .d :t, .s, fair in Flora's m ,m ;r .d none so fair in PI, .,f|:S| .d| Flora's trea - t, .d :d .t, fair in Flo-ra'i trea t, .3, '.r Flo-ra' s trea - j 3, .m, :a, j 6 [ in sure, d :d trea - sure, S| : — sure, d ; — sure, d, ; [Ic] P :d .,r P None so d .,r :7i None so fair, 1, .1, ;s, None so fair, None so fair, 1, .,t,:d m :m .,f fair, none so ^. .,f :8 none so fair, :s. .,1, none so s .,f -.m None so fair, d| .,r,:m, 3 :S| .,1, fair, none so s, .,l,:t, .d none so fair in t| .d :t, .3, fair in Flo-ra' s ni .It :r .m none so fair in m, .,f|:S| .d t, .d :d .t, ' fair in Flora's r .m :r Flora's trea - r .d :r Flora's trea 8, .m, :s, 5 />[IlA.] d .d :m tre.osure. These PI :d sui-o. These sure, d sure, d, :d These I placed r :ni .f I placed in .t, :d .1 I placed in t, .d :- .t, in Phil - lis' 3 .n :r Phillis' bow - Phil - lis' 1, ■I, bow d - ers, era. P=^ 1, .1 These bowers. These :f. I .8, :1| .t, J I idaced in^ .8, :f, .f, ) I placed in I ni, :f, .r, / THE MADRIGAL. 148 ^[IlB.] m .m :s r .r :f /.. :ni ,m She was pleaa^d, d .d -.m She was t, .t, pleas'd, :r she was 1, .1. pleas'd, and :d .d d .3, :s, 8| :r, .r, f, :d, Phil-lis' bow - s, .S| :d ers, she was pleas'd and Phil-lis* bow - d, .d| :d, ere, r .d slie's my t, .d S, ,1, she's my plea - d .t, plea - [lie] n d .d :iri t, .t, :r 1, .1, :d .d siire, She was pleas'd. she was pleas'd. she was pleas'd,and d : — m .n :s r .r :f d .d :m .n d, :— :s, .3, s, :f, .f, 1, :s, sure, She was pleas'd, she was pleas'd, and P :s d .d :d ,?■ ,- .fr - .r :- .., She was pleas'd, She was pleas'd, :d. .d, She was s, :r, .r, pleas'd, and f, :d, She was pleas'd, she was pleas'd, and t, .d -.d .t, she's my plea - r .d :r 3, .PI, :s, she's my plea - t, .1, :r she's my plea - s, .1, :s, d sure. sure, d sure, d, D.C. :§/ [Va.] d .,d :t, .t, Smll - ing meadows m .,m :r . 1, .1, :s, . seem to say. Come, m .f :s d .,d :t| .t, Smil • ing meadows :s .,S Smiling - .r :t, .d meadows seem to r .t, :d ones,a f .f ■ way, in .n meadow s seem to :i»i, .,f| r Come, ye say. :d .,d Smil -ing p s, .r, hap-py d .,d Snul- ing ones, a - d .1, Come, ye t, .t, hap - py 1, .1. mea-dows seem to t| .3, :S| .fe, mea-dows seem to r .,r :d .d Smil - iag meadows way, t, .t, ones, a S, :1, • way. Vb.] S| say, t, .t, seem to tj .,d Smil -ing .,8, meadows ( 1 .,1 SmU - ingl f, .f. Come, ye hap-py 144 THE MA.DKIGAX. 2 ,8 .,8:f .f I Come, ye hap-py t, .d, :r, seem to say, 8 .PI :f .r meadows seem to PI, .dj :r, ones, a - way, m .PI ;r .d ones, ye hap - py d .,d:t, .1, Come, ye hap -py Sj .,l^:t;,d|,r| Come, ye hap- py PI : .1, say, d|,r|.Pvf,:S| Come, ye hap-py a - .1, ITiA.]/ t, .t| :1| .1,8 f .PI ones,away,Come,ye 1, .86, ":I, ones, a Pii .PI. ' ■'^ay, :pi, ones, a - way, t, .t, :de way, a PI. .PI. • way, :1. ones, a - way. hap-py .1„S| Come, ye r .1, Come, ye :r .de ones, a - : .1,8 Come.ye/ :f, .PI, hap - py ;r .1, hap - py .PI :f P .1,8 way, away,Come, ye f .m :r .de hap-py ones, a - r, .de, :r, .1, ones, a - way, a - .1 ,8 :f .PI f .PI :r .de hap-py ones, a - r .PI : f .1,3 way, Come, ye happy, 1, .l„S|:f, .PI, way,Come, ye happy r .de :r .pi Come,ye happy ones, a - way, a r, .1, :r, . i r, .1, tr, .1, ones, a - way. Come, ye hap-py / r .Pi.Pi :f .PI way,Come, ye happy f .PI :r .d hap-py ones, a - r, .de, :r| .s^ ones, a - way, a - f .l,s:f .8 way,Come,ye happy r .1, :r, .pi,,!, ones, a - way, a - P [VIb.] r .r :pi .s,fl ones, away,Come, ye 1 d .t, :d way, a - way, r, .r, :d, way, a - way, ones, a - way 8, .S, -.d, way, a - way. PI .r :d .t, |d .r :pi .s,f|Pi .r :d . .t, li*P-py one8,a - l way,a-way,Come, ye hap-py, hap-py : .8 ,f PI .r :d .t, , d .r :pi .s ,f Come,ye! hap-py ones, a - .8,,f|:ni| .r, Id, .t, '.^i .82 C!omo,ye happy] one8,a - way, a - : I .8 ,f :pi .r I Come,ye happy .8, :d .8, d, .8, :d, Come,ye hap-py ones,a - way, way,a-way,Come,ye 8, .s„f|:m, .r, way,Come,ye happy d .t, :d .r one8,a d, .8, way, a :d, .8, / d .r :pi .s ones,a - way. Ye PI .r :d .d hajwpy ones, ye d, .tg :d, .PI, ones,a - way, ye PI .8 ,f :pi .d way, Come,ye happy, | d .8, :d, .d. Come.ye hap - py 1 ones,a - way, ye 6 >■ 1st time. D.8. 2nd time. ^ ! f .,8 :f .PI 8 :- .8 PI :- . PI : — hap - py ones,a - d .,d :d .d way, t, .d :_ a - .t. way. d :- . r- :- hap - py ones.a - f, .d, :d, .d. way, 8, :- a - .8, way. 8, :- . way. 8, : — hap-py ones, a - 1, .,s, :l^..d way. r .m :r a - way. d :- , way, d : — hap - py one8,a - f, .,Pi, :f, .1, way, 8, s :8, - way. d, :- way. d ! — THT, MADRTOAL. 143 [Ia] Moderato. l8T Soprano. * ^i^^^^gp^^ 2iin Soprano. io^^i§lE^^g^^ P Contralto. ^^^^^^^^^^. $ I^F^qs ^Sl^g i^as ^gs= 5==St: rg-4-«L ^ z*zES^^^ [IB] =il=P= 2E^5 [lo] p ■m=f^=mz V If r- ^^3E -t*-**- i ^^- E^E -tf--*- =?=P^ -V-JV- ^^^^^^ ^^g^^^^i^g^l^i^l dOiT^ 5=S- -r^-ig= ■■ftzff=wz g->^— U- ;^:=tv-p= ^i^^ ^gi^=^^=^gs^g£^ilgi=S3±3J F^^ ^gi^^g -N-N- .[Ha] ^■-f eSeS :ei^p^ 53tz=^?=E:=tt:^^pta=s^:zSEzfc}n::3 ^^^^ />^ ^i^^^^^=^^^^gi^^ ^^^^lil^^iJ ===! 146 TffE MADHIOAL. [Hb] [Va] 1 m MMIUBIOAL. 147 [Vb] [VIA] / MM^-4- ^^fJV-.M^ •r^-g' ^*? ^i ss^ g atrgz T~L^-£ ^§^^=^^^^^^^ M^if. ^ 5t-* i r:p: ^fete; ;?eE l=g^^5g^^=^ss^ J§i^pF3"^-i^ggpi^^ii^ £g / _ivi»3_^ ife^ti^ ^^i^^p^ =E^ P i^^^fe^^^fe^^^^^ 5^^^g^ -«-• i^^ :to5=ffi t^ if I 42=^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^fei^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^0 ^g^ -^^^^^-fe^feg ^ 148 THE ANTHBM. 107. The Anthem Form. — The Anthem is the modern form of the Motett. It consists of sacred vocal music adapted for several voices on each part, and for one set of words. It differs from the Hymn-tune in that it gives scope for every musical device which can enhance the effect of fariicular words or sentiments. Fugal imitation, the silencing of some parts that the others may be better heard, repetition of favourite words, changes of measure and rate of movement, and in more " extended " Anthems even the Solo, the Duet, the Trio, and the Quartet may be introduced. The Aaithem may be accompanied or unaccompanied by instruments, and these accompaniments may be necessary, i.e., ohbliqafo (obligaa'toa) ; or non-essential, i.e., ad lihitum. 1075. Examples.— "In Jewry is God kno-VTO," thot^h short, gives the student a fair idea of the Anthem Form. It is Three-fold, the first Strain being in tsvo- pulse measure, the second in three-pulse, and the third in four-pulse. This chan^ of measure and style is characteristic of the English Anthem, as it is also of the English Glee. In the first Strain, the portion we have marked as Ib imitates Ia, carrying it into the first sharp key ; Ub imitates Ha, bringing it to a con- clusion, and the two together express brilliantly the "point" of this Strain. The second Strain introduces an addi- tional Soprano part, and along with it the gentle three-pulse measure. So much softness and sweetness comes in very effectively after the boldness of the first Strain. The effect is heightened by this middle part being given to select voices. IIIb, like TTTa, opens with aU the parts, and leaves the lower parts to conclude the Sections. TV'a is a sweet trio of the upper voices. TV^ has a fine holding- tone, with separate entries of the parts upon it. rVc imitates this, bringing the Strain to a conclusion. In the third Strain the chorus breaks out with great strength, interrupted only for a short time at VIa by the "verse" parts, and then concludes in plain strong chords. 107c. History .—The Anthem, like the Glee, is pectiliarly an English Form. It •was developed by the requirements of the Cathedral service in the Protestant Epis- copal Church. Purcell wrote Anthems for solo voices, and Anthems with the accompaniment of a full orchestral band. Dr. "William Croft, who was in the height of his fame when Handel came to Eng- land, wrote Anthems with great power and freshness. He was followed by Greene, Jeremiah Clarke, John 'Weldon, WiUiam Boyce, and others. Attwood and Goss, in "later days, have brought the English Anthem to great perfection. It should. however, be understood that the old Cathedral Anthems were written for highly-trained voices, and are dilficiilt of execution. Modem musicians are now writing Anthems which have all the ad- vantage of the modem appliances of harmony, and are also more easily simg. 107i| .:h 8, :s, .8, s njime d :s is :m, 1 ;s great in f, :s, 8 Is d :- .8 ra- :- .d s :d .,r m :r .s Jew - 17 is d :t, .t. 10" :d 3 Chokus. God 1, :- .t„( 1 : known, It, :- :r His :t, m .fe :s 1 :s .fe gredt in d :t, .1, name is d :r s :fe s :— known, s, : — :s His :s, s -.s name is d :t| F, :r great in 1, :r God" 1, :r 8 s - .8 [I s : lA.]# :s d' : :f t : .f Is - t, la- - .t, el; r :s is :d great, d : is :r great, His r : .t, r - .r s .f :ni .r d :f f .m :r d t, : .1- Is - la- - -3, el; His s, :s .f naiue is in .r :d ^, great, His 1, :f .m name r .d is 1. great, His S, : .8, 6 m :1 8 :f m :- .f [Ub.. s : ] :s d' : name d is :d great in d :t, Is - d :- ra- .d el, d : is :d great m .f m :r .8 s :- .f m :s s.f :m r d ;f name d is gieat in s, :s, Is - d :- .d el, His d :s .f name m .r is :d _t, great. His 1, :f .m 4 :f t : .t d' :1 s :- .f m ,_ r d :— is ;r great, His r : .r n;imo is d :d great in d :t| Is d - ra- ti d : — f .m •.r .d t| : .8 8 :f m :r .s s :- £ m : — name r .d is :t,.l, gieat. His s, : .s, nai d ne is great s, : in 8| Is d - ra- .d, el. d, :- 160 THE AITTHBM [HIa.] Verse. S.S.C.T.B. M. 92. s s .,f -.m :m .8 s.f :7i :r m .,f :s : At m Sa - lem m .,r :d is His :d ,m ta - - m .r :d ber - :t, na - cle, d .,r :n :s, s, .,f|:m, :s, .8. d d :d :d .d f :s At :s .,f Sa - lem m .,r :d is TTi.g At Sa - lem is His ta - - bar - -.8, At na - cle, d :d Sa - lem is His :d A is TTini D.t, s,.f, :n, bar - :t, ber - :8, ; r»i,.,f,: ta - - m .r :d ta - - f. =8, na - d .,r: na - d : 8, :s, cle, and His in :m .,r cle, and His d :d .,t, -If dwe: "1 .r dwe! lUing d' illitlg S [HlB.] and His m :m :d .,df Si - on and Hisf d' .,s : s :s .,s\ Si - on d :d and TTJH :d .,d dwell-ing f dweU-ing 1 dwell-ing f d' :d' • on, :8 At d' m ;s - lem :1 .,8 is His :f .,m 8 .f :ni ;r Si - 71 ta - - m .r :d ber m :d :s Si - 8 • on, :s • on, :d :d' At A' Sa :d' - lem :d .,& is His f -.s At :s Si ■ d ta - - ber :8, 6 m :n na d - cle, :d m :d na - cle. s :s na d - cle, :d Sa - lem :f .m m .r :d :t, ber - d : is His ta . na - :1 .,8 f :in :r ber - m : is TTiR ta _ na - :d .,d f, :s, :s, d : ia His ta - - ber - na • f.G. [IVa and His :<'S|.,S| cle. :s .,1 de, and His cle, d dwell- mg t, dweU-ing in THE ANTHEM. 151 3 f.8,I:8 :8 Si - on, at r .in,f : m : r d :d' :t Si - on, at Sa - lem, at d :d :d 1 :1 :b Sa - Icm, at 1 :r :d.,d Sa - lem isHis d :t, :d.,s f :f :m„m Sa - lem isHiB t,.,r:f :ni ta - - ber- s, :r :d vt, :d - - ber- [IVb.] tn :r :s.,8, na - cIe,aadS2a { d :t, : 8, :s, na - de, 2 8 dwell — — :s dwelling, s, :d :s 1 .t :d' :t.l 1 :s : His dwelling f.s:l in :s.f Si f - on, :m : :d d :d :d' d' :d : TTia dwelling in Si - on. pVc] ^s! 2 :f f :in :t, His :r dwelling, His r :d :s, S| : — dweU : :f :t, Hia t, :d : Hia dwelling. t, :d ;s s .f :m dwelling, His s, :S| :d,in dwelling, His : :m, His dweUing n.r :d dweUing f, :s, dweUing in d :d Si - on. d :d :8, 8i - on. :in Si - on. d, :d, Si - on. [Va.] Chorus. { •• 1 : : 1 : 5.C.T.B. M. 132. : 1 : : 1 : : 1 1 [ Vb.] m :— 1- There d :— j- - :- d :- 1- :- a :s 1 :s s :s If :f m :- 1- — ; There d :- 1- :- brake He the ar - rows t, :3, 1 :s, 1, :s, of ll. the :t, bow, d :- 1- - :- 2 r :s 1 :s s :s |fe :fe 8 : — 1 [Vc] :s 1 : i :1 brake He ttie t, :t, 1 :t, : 1 : ar - rows of the d :d |d :d : 1 5 bow, t, :- 1 1 the :d shield, d : 1 f ; 1 the :d :1 : ! '• : 1 : ; 1 the :d shield. the :f 162 THE ANTHEM. Bword, t, : sword, f : I the :d the t : — \n sword, and t, :- Id s : — |8 sword, and r :— |d bat -tie, d :t, I B :s I bat -tie, s, :s, I [VIA.] VEasB. : I t, :- I- There 8 :- I- There 8, :1, |t, t, :1, brake He s :fe brake He r ;r| r : There ;t, d : the ar - ] :s 1 : the ar - ] :r r : t, Id rows of |1 rows of 1, the fe the r. r :r brake He t, :- bow, >? : — bow, s, : — the the r the :s If rows of :t, |d :r jd rows of :s, II, :f the the :t, bow, d bow, d [VIb.] Chorus. :1 Is : the :d the :d shield. Id : shield, Id : the :d the :d sword, d : sword, d : tlie :d the :d sword, d : — sword, d :- |1 :1 and the Id :d :- If and the Id :d bat - tie, d :d bat - tie, d :d I [Vic] the :d the :d shield, t, :- I r :— ( shield, 8, :- I the :t, :r the 3 s : — sword, d : — sword, d :— the :d the :f. sword, d :- sword. and the jd :t, |s :8 and the |s, :8, [ViD.] bat - tie, d :d bat - tie, d :d the :d the :d shield, t, :- shield. ^1 the ••t, the Bword, d :- sword, d :- the ;d the :f. sword, d :- sword, Si : — and Id IS and the ■ .t, :d I- bat - tie. d :d the I bat - tie. -.8||d, :d, I — THE ANTHKM. 153 [Ia] Chorus. Lively, m = 88- J-S5- I ^ ^ I bSv ^-p— j^^ litSi ^1^ I I r i^ <^F^ y— .r-n r— r— bg:: I I ^^^ I I p f^ p^ TIb] Verse. Chokus. ^— I I ^» I ^ — I 1 '^ i| — I*-.' -;^r-t:p: 1,,-c 1— c, p ■^— — ^ — I idA^rt^^^#l I — t- [IUa] Vers^^ = 92. ^ > ' i^^^s^^M^ »-|^. sJ_.«- 1 I N > J I ! I I -■t .«iL .*. ^ ^ I'^l 1 1«4 TES AVTHKM. [IVb] P; i [Vol :^^V^- P J , I -4—4- ^^ ^3E ^ [VIa] Vebse. [VIbI CHOEns. VARIOCrS SONO-TOTTESl. AKIA8. Id6 108. The Song-tune Form.— This Form, like the Hymn- tune Form, is adapted to successive verses of the same song. It is commonly arranged for a solo voice with instrumental harmony. In the majority of cases it is Two-fold, following the metres of the poetry ; — but like the Hymn-tune Form, it is very fi*equently Three-fold. See " Life let us cherish," p. 101 ; "All through the night," p. 102. 1086. Ballad. — This is a narrative poem of a simple rhythm, siiitable for dancinff. As Mx. ChappeU says, " Ball and Ballad are words derived from the same root, and when the people danced country dances they accompanied them with song." 108c. Oarol. — This is a song of joy and exultation, which may be accompanied by dancing. It is a word of very ancient use in the Italian, Armenian, and Welsh languages. It survives chiefly in the form of Christmas Carols, which are now often harmonized like Psalm-tunes and Part-songs. lOSrf. Barcarolle. — ^A song in six-pulse measure, sometimes harmonized, suitable to the movements of a gondolier. A boat- song. 108e. Serenade. — Music, whether vocal or instrumental, whether for one voice or for many, of a quiet, soothing, serene character, suitable for performance under a friend's window at night. Nocturne or Nottumo have the same meaning. 108/. Aubade. — A song or chorus at daybreak, corresponding to the old Eng- lish " hunt's up." 108^. Romance or Bomama. — Named from the romance language in which the troubadours composed their gay and ele- gant love-songs. It is also used for in- strumental pieces of a similar character. 108A. Oavatina. — An operatic song shorter than the Aria. Arietta has the same meaning. lOSy. Camonet. — A short son^ of lively character, sometimes a harmonized son^. A Madrigal or Part-song. 1084. Bolaro. — A Spanish dance song, in three-pulse measure. 108Z. Preghiera. — ^An operatic song, ex- pressing prayer. 108ot. Brindisi (Italian). — A song in which the high Tenor or falsetto voice is introduced, like the jodl (yoadl) of the Swiss. 108n. Modinha. — A Portugese love song with guitar accompaniment. 108o. Vaudeville. — A form of satirical song on love, drinking, or passing events, introduced by Oliver BasseUn of the Vaux de Vire in Normandy, in the fifteenth century. Afterwards applied to dramatic pieces in which such songs are introduced. 108/). Villanella. — An old Neapolitan rustic dancing song. lOSy. Tyrolienne. — A Tyrolese waltz- Uke song, accompanied with dancing. 109. The Extended Song-tune Form.— Both the Hymn- tune and Song-tune may be " extended " in the senses described above, par. 97, p. 125. The Extended Song-tune is sometimes in Three-fold Form. It is seldom adapted to more than one set of words. 1096. Examples. — "Eveiy vaUey," p. 156, has been analysed for accompani- ment, above, p. 120, and the general idea of its Form is explained below, p. 199. It is obviously a Two-fold Form. The first Period closes in the first sharp key. The opening of the second Period quickly passes into the first flat key, not, however, for a subdued, but for a richer and more brilliant effect, and this effect is gained by introducing the old theme at a higher pitch. "Arm, arm, ye brave," is also Two- fold. Its second Period opens, in a manner very common with Handel, with a new theme in the relative minor, and closes with reminiscences of the first theme. Sometimes in such songs the theme is simply repeated, and this gives the music a Three-fold Foiia. Haydn's "With joy the impatient hus- bandman" is Three-fold. Its middle Period has a new theme in the Tonio minor, and the third Period returns to the old theme. " I know that my Redeemer liveth " is Two-fold. The subject of the second Strain having constantly intermingled with it reminiscences of the first, which is also re-echoed in the instrumental sym- phony at the close. Mendelssohn's " O rest in the Lord " is Three-fold. Its middle Period goes into the first sharp key and its relative minor. Its last Period returns to the original theme with variations. Thus in these great extended Songs and Arias there is alway? some Foiia, though not the samo Form 156 EXXKNDED SONG-XUNK JTOEil. EVERY VALLEY SHAXlL BE EXALTED. XBV K. [lA.] d' .d' S .8 PI . Andanle. M. 66 :r' im' ., :d' .t Id' ., :1 .8 |3 ., d .PI :f .8 Id 3 - .f> d' . 3 .1 ,8 :r' :1 :f .,d'jt,1.8 1 .m |r .t .,8' -.8' ,,i»i' ;ni' n .d A' - .f>':r' .d' |t d' .8 :1 . is :f .m I Ki .d :f .1 IS r' .d' :r' .d' |r' 1 .8 :1 .3 |1 Handel. .,s' 1 .d' : .d' |1 .d' f .m :f .m |f .n .f I V .m' :f' .m' |f' .m' t .d' :t .d' |t .d' f .3 :f .s |f .3 r .d :r .d jr .d :!' .8' |1' .3' :1' .r' :f' .01' jf .m' :f' .t m' .,f':r' ] d' .d' :- .t 8 .1 18 \ d' .f :s • s. ' 7 Id- |8 im ?"• Ev - 'ry 1 ,8 :1 .8 |1 .8 :1 f .m :f .m jf .m ;f |pi .,3 :s •?al - ley, tr. d .d 3, .1, d .f, •.s. d'.d' :r' jm .,3':s' s . :d'.t |d' .,m':m' m .8 :1 .8 js .,d':d' d .in :f .8 |d : ev - 'ry :f •■t, 1 8 .,d': val - J ■ U. : Bhall 8 .f |m,r.d : be ex - alt - ed, r .r jm ,8 :d' - .t, jd . : . [Ic 1 -8 ■] :d' \ shall be r' d' 1 .t,i;t .1' .t | S] t Si '^i m .r d .t, s, .8, .d |r .d :r .d the crook - ed .d |r .d -.r .d .8, |1, .8, :1 .3, d :— E straight, d : .d' |r' .d' ;r' .d' 1, .8, : .m jf .m :f .m . tn, |f| .I'll :f, .m, ' f , .m. d' i 1 .3 : f .m' : — : d .d and the! d .d .d. 6 Id :d .d rough pla-ces |1 .8 |f .m :1 .8 :f .m Id •.d If, .d, :f, .d, :- If :- plain, 1 .8 :1 .8 |f .m :f .m f .m :f .m jr .d :r .d d : A ji :T, f, .d : .d, jr, .1, :r, .f, - .m :f .m \i |t .d' :r' .d' if r: js, .1, :t, .1, ,m :f .m jf If :- It, .d :r .d |8, .1, -.t, .1, — : .r |m .1 :s .t, tie crook - ed — :- .r \m : .r t, .d :r .8, |d : .t, |8, : 8, .1, :t, .t, jd, .f, :iii| .8, straight, the J m .1 :3 .t, d :- .f, : .r, d, ,f| :tn, ,8, 11 |pi .1 crook |m, .1, jd, f :8 • t, ed - • _ ■ r. :s, .t, :m, .8, d ,f| :ni| .1, js, .d :t| .f 8traight,and the rough pla-ces d, .f, :d I- .d :t, .f d| :ni| .1, js .3, :f| .t [If.] EXTENDED SOITQ-TTnTE FOBM : — I — :- .m,r d 1 .1 r .r :1 .1 |s :r .r jr :8 .3 :r .r t, .t. :t, .t, It, .t, :t, .t, 159 — :- .r,d t, .d :r .d .s :8 .3 |f .f :f ,f .d :d .d |d .d :d A 1, .1, :1, .1, |1, .1. :1, .1, f .f r .d t, .i, f .f t, .d s, .1, s, .1, :t, .1, 4 It, .d :r .d If .f :f .f |r .d :t, .d It. .1. :s. .1. |3, •1. :t, ■1. :d .f |n :r .d and the rough pla-ces :t, :s, d :- I- :- plain. d .3, :1, .3, |1| .3, :1, .ni, :f| .m, |f, .m, :f, P .d :d .d |d .d :d d, :- I- :- 1 .8 :1 .3 |1 .3 .1 .r m ., f .m :f .n |f .m :£ .t, d .d 3| .1 / d .f, :s, .8, |d, f.E, [IIa.] :t Ev ds "it, P :t 1 Id' val Id' 15 in 4 f.A. :d ley, dig :t Id' »r :s |S »t, :r Id /. :fi jui, o.s; :fi jm. fd :r ev - 'ry |w val ,3 :s - ley f ,i»i '.r .d It, .8 :s .1 .8 :f in r ,d It, .3 :s > ahallbe ■ alt - - - - - - - - - - I 1 .t .8 .r d' 8 d : 1 ; .t 1 :t l») : 'ii n, :f. IS, : .f, ; 160 extendi:^ soxo-TxmK foem. |- .1,8 :f ,in.r,d |t„l,.8| :-,t|.d,r d,t,.l, :-,d.r,'>i |r ,d. t, :-,r.ni,f\ I •«! :t, ,d ,r :8 .t, :r .8, :t, .1, It, m,r d m :f-in r ,f |S n ~ :f ■ |s d :ti Id 8| |8| d •.r |tn d s, .d / - .t, :•« Id, .,8 :r .(I'l tn) .,d :d E.t. [IIb.] ',d :r Ev - 'ry 9,d :r :t, |Pi .,s :8 val - ley, Id 1 ; s :1 Ev - 'ry |in' Id' .,s':6' ..m':m' s :1 d :d |S Id' P n .d :f 3 |t .,r':r' Tal - ley :s, .1, -,d'.t,l:3 .f im.r.d :d' shall be ex -alt f,ni.r :d' |8,f.ni B.t. ■ dif jin f.E. -,in.r :3 .f |n .,r :d ed, .t, :t, .t, |d and ev-'ry moun ■ :'ir .m ■ tain and £ bill :- .n ^ - - - made ir : rs, : 1 1 1 .8 .m ,d :d' .m :s .d :m .8, :d . f f, . :t, |s . . :f, . Id . • : |8i • ids. :^r. f d 'et, : Id d, :d, .d, ri .r, :r, .r, |m, .m, :Vcd r :8, / KXTENDED SONS-TTTNE FORM. 161 low, |n Id |s. Id [ITc] P : 1 : .d' the 1 .3 f .m :1 :f .8 ll .m If .8 : .m : .d' .8 d' .d' :d' .d' |d' r' .d' :r' .d' |d' :— crook - ed straight, r' .d' :r' .d' |d' :- .d' 1 .8 :1 .3 1 .3 :1 .8 f .Ki :f .m |f ,v\ :f ,n the r' .d' :r' .d' |d' :— 1 .R :1 .8 |1 .3 :1 .8 f .n :f .n |f .n :f .m 1 .d' :r |r : crook - eii gtraight. t the d' M :s crook - ed d' :- .d' It .r :f 1 :r |r :f .t d' .in' :s m :;n :d :f, 6 If :f .f straight.and the |r :- .f :r .d f -.f .f |f : — rongh pla-cea plain, f M :r .d' |t .d' :r' 1, .f :- .f |f .Ki :r r .d :t, .1, |s, .1, :t| .1, t .d' :r' .d' |t .d' :r' .d' f .m :r .m |f .n :r .m 3, .1, :t, .1, |s, .1, :t, .1, — :m .r |m :r .d and the rough pla-ces t f :d' i-n :n .r |d :r .d :t| .d :d .f, |s. d :s .m |1 -.t .t plain, and the rough pla-ces d :s .m |1 :t :d |d .f :r .s d .r :m .d |f .r .s .f d' :— plain, d' .3' :1' s .m' :f' PP PI .d 11 I- :- |1' .s' :1' .8' If M :f' M V .8' :1' .3' ll' .3' :1' .r' f .n' -.f .M' If .m' :f .t : .3 / [IId.] Ooda : .d ; the m' .,f d' s .1 r' |d' - .t \m 3 .3 I d' .f :s .8, |1, 1JS2 EXTENDED SONG-TTJNE FORM. 2 d' :fe crook - ed |3 : straight. ad lib. :s and |1 the :d' rou^ K ;_ ^ - - fe' : d' : I : ir' : IB 8 : — m :— d :— ad lib. !i :- m d 8, 1 : It, : It. : d :— If, : >l ' 4 |r :- • d p-u : : 1 ] - - oes plain. |r : d' :r' 8 .d' :- .t .8 :1 .8 m' .,s':s' d' .,in':iti' .t 8 ,, : d'.s :r' .d' It :1 .Ki |8 :f . 1 .,8': 8' 1 ,t:t .r : .t 8, : 8, : y Tempo Ifno d .m :f .8 d : .r m .d :f .1 » : .f 1 - .f>':r' .,d'|t,1.8 d* .l,8:f .1 |8, . B . : jq jr .t, PI ,d :f .f, 1 8, r' .d' :r' .d' |r .d' 1 .8 :l .3 |1 .8 1 .d' : .d' jl .d' : f .m :f .m if .m : 6 f .n' :f' ,m' If .m' t .d' :t .d' |t .d' f .8 :f .8 If .8 .8' 1' .8' :1' .8' |1' .s' :1' ,r' f .m' :f' .m' |f' ,m' :f' .t P r .d :r .d |r .d : m' ,f':r' d' .d' :- .t s .1 :8 .8 d' .f :8 .8, Id .8 .m P 1 .8 :1 .s |1 .8 :1 t .r f .ni :f .m iL ."n :f .t m .,f d .d 8, .1, d .f, :8, Id •t, |s, im, Id, EXTENDED 80KG-TT7NE FOBU, ItfS AUDANTK. J— 66. k^^^^^^^^^m ^ii^i fe^ I^eS^SE 8Tes. ev - 'ry val - ley, shall be ex-alt-ed, shall be ^ 164 EXTENDED SONG-TTJNE FOEM. [Id.] ?irrjr:ij=:^^^E^^^^^=p- ^c[^^^ 6g ^ [Ib.] --V ed, aad ev'ry mountain and hill made low, the crooked — 1— J — ^i — 11, — •• EXTENDED 80NG-TDNE FORM. 1^7 ^^^^~ ^m I h ^ =1 the crooked straight,thg crooked straight,& the rough places plain, ^'^^^^^^^^^t 1 . & the rough places plain, & the rough places plain, fegg^^g^E^- -V — tS" [IId] Coda. ^ ad lib. [He] m *k: :stp: 1^^ tt^- i-^S I the crooked straight,& the rough places plain. III •* S: ^ Tempo Imo. ^^l^^^H^E^^ i^^M^fc^^ ^^fcgatt ^f'i ii ^F^ 168 THE GLEE FOEM. 110. The Glee Form. — The title Glee (Anglo- Saxon, mean- ing Music) was given to a style of Part-song specially designed for single voices to each part. In order to exhibit the powers of these voices, the solo, the duet, the fugal imitation, and other similar devices, are freely used. Probably with the same view the Glee is more extended than the Part-song, and often has in the middle an entire change of measure and style. Some Glees are unaccompanied, others have independent and essential accom- paniments. 1106. Examples. — " Blow, blow, thou winter wind," p. 168, is a good specimen of the changing moods of the Glee. It is Two-fold. The close of the first Strain having changed to a lively six-pulse mea- Fure, the ear is better prepared to receive the effect of the Minor passage in four- pulse measure with which the second Strain begins. The first thirty-two mea- sures (induding the repeats) give a calm and quiet opening, very m.uch in Hymn- tune Form, with its first sharp cadence in the middle. Then the refrain closes the first Strain. The second Strain is also closed with the same refrain. This re- currence of the refrain is the only thing whicii gives unity to the piece. We now look upon it as a defect in the old Glees that they had too much of Variety, and too little of Unity. Like their predecessors the Madrigals, they went on from one theme to the other, without caring to establish a relationship between them. In two others of Stevens' Glees, " From Oberon," Reporter 75, and "Ye spotted snakes," Reporltr 62, the refrain forms the unity. Samuel Webbe's " Swiftly from the mountain's brow," Reporter 10, is Three-fold. It is full of variety, and is very descriptive, but has very little unity ; and this is what we may expect in most of the old Glees. Cotdd there not be modem Glees, with all the adaptation for shewing off special and select voices, with aU the advantage which extended change of measure and movement gives, but with more of " development " and more of unity ? 110c. History.— The Glee Form, like the Anthem, is peculiarly Fnglish, and perhaps for the same reason. The Pro- testant Churches of Germany, France, and Scotland adopted the Presbyterian form of Government and worship, and the Presbyterian form, while it has done grand service to the Chorale and Hymn- tune of the people, has not sustained in every great city a cathedral choir of selected and highly trained voices, ready to sing the choicest music that could be set before them. This the Episcopal Church of England has done. And the same skilful singers, who created the demand for extended Anthems in the cathedral service, were constantly sought for to enliven the social evenings of cathedral cities by secular as well as sacred music. And for such singers the Glee was made. Once made, it was caught up all over the country wherever fine select voices could be got together. Its most successful period was the close of the last century and the beginning of this, when Danby, Momington, Paxton Webbe, Spofforth, Stevens, Callcott, Bishop, with many others, pom-ed forth a grand fiood of delicately-wi'ought music. Of later years, the spread of part-singing among the people has drawn off the attention of composers from the larger and finer form of the Glee, to the simpler and easier form of the Part-song. KBT A. Andante m/ :b, Id :d 1 BLOW, BLOW, THOU WINTER WIND. |d .,r -.m .,f Blow, blow, thou win - ter : :I, |8,.,t|:d I :d |d .,s :s I Thou win - ter 1 :f, im|.,r,:d| wind, d :t, wind, 8. :■ E. J. 8. Stbvkbb. :t|.,d Thou : r ,,m art :f .,3 not |1 so |r :s .,f un - :r Thou : t,.,d art :r ..m not If so It, :s un - :t, THE ENGLISH 6LEB. 169 kind d kind d : — I- :s as |s, :- E.t. df :1 |8 :f m :t cres. Id' :r' man's in - gra - |r ti - :r tude, d as :f man's in |s :f "1 :1 It :t d' :t 1 |s :1 man's in Ir :d - gra - It, ti - :s. tude, d as :r man's in |m :f f d' :- - It - |r :- .t ti :- .r :s ti - f.A. i :f |s jol-ly,most jol-ly, this d, :d, :- | : :f, M. 96 :t, thou] thou] :se, d :- |1, :- dost not ni, :— 111 : — m :— |n : — dost not 1 :- Id :- r : — |r bite so 1, :- |l, f :- 11 bite so f :- If - I- :f nigh t, :- 8e :- nigh, I- m :r |d :t, be - ne - fits for ■ d :t, |1, :se, THE ENGLISH GLEE. 171 d :- (r ■ d :t, |1, :se| 1| :- ,i - 1, :t, |d :1, got, as 1. :- 1- be -ne - fits for- 1 :"i got. m, : — Though |1. :- thou the wa - ters 1 jse, |1, ;1, Pi :— |f : — m :r Id :t, d :- 1 : |m :- got, as a :1, If, :r. be - ne m, : — - fits for - got. im, :- |1, :- 1 : Though : jl, :- as be - ne- fits for - got. f :- I- warp, 1, :- I- f :s |1 thou the wa r, ;m, jf, t, :d |r :t, sting is s, :1, not It, so :s, sting is r : — not 1 — so :r warp, s, :- 1 — thy :S| thy s : — |S : — 8 :- |— ; — sharp s, :1, as It, :.S| friend d :- 1- :d sharp,is t, :- not It, so :t, sharp d :n as |m :1 sting's m, :f, not IS, so :m, sharp as friend re |1, :- sting is not so shaa:p as r :- I- friend 1 :- I- mem r :— I- friend dim. f :- I- mem r :— I- ber'd t, :- — : — im : — r : d : — ber'd 1— :- not, d : ber'd not, 8 : d : — 1 • 1 • not, s, : ber'd 0| not, - I- p a.A.f.C. t, : — )t,se riPi I- :- friend 1 :- I- m' : — I — friend 1 :■ ;- it :- re - - :— |se : — :— im' :— re - - |1 :- A.t.m.l. «et, :- 1- ber'd 1- :- not. "s, :- 1- 1- :- t r : — not. 1- 1— : — "8, : — 1— D.S.> 172 THE ENGLISH GLEE. i ./>^, J Ji ■ '^ pp J JO J JO|J^,z^:d^ ^ =*z=rit 3^-4^^ P^iSl ::? — m- wm I I I I 4.^4.1:^ -F 1-- -r * ;- fe .r^ ,-a :*=S= ^^ m ^ -f (* ^^^ m -t- 1: ^^r-r I r"^ •S:^-=96, U— . N ^ *=e: -*UJ. J^J. =Jfcp:ic(t: e: THE ENGLISH OLEE. 173 ^^EE=±p^Pi^^^^^^^ D.S. AL FlNK. 4—^ f=t^=^^pi:-^5=g 174 THE MAHCH FOEM. 111. The March Form- — The March is an "applied" Form, designed to "give the time" to men marching. With this view,! it is commonly, though not always, in two-pulse or four-pulse i measure, and its Bass marks the accent very strongly. The Bass i makes much use of the rhythm : taatai | taa or TAAfe | taa or .tefe I TAA. Any tunes in four-pulse, two-pulse, or quick six- j pulse measure with a clear rhythm may be used for marching i purposes. But the March proper has come to have a distinct Form, j As soldiers marching cannot give close attention to music, the March is generally of a simple character with very plain accompani- ments, and frequent repetitions. It contains three movemer.ta. j First, the Principal March ; second, the EeHef March (which ig i generally of a softer character) ; and third, the Eepetition of the | Principal March. All the three movements are of similar structure. | The plan of each (when perfectly carried out) is as follows : — I First Strain. Ia, B. Prin. Theme. Cad. ^D I Ha, b. Repetition of Ia, b. |— | Second Strain. IIIa, b. Middle Period. Varied in style and key ; IVa, b. Return to Prin. Theme, but Cad. in original key ; — Third Strain. Va, b. and YIa, b. Repetition of IIIa, b, and FVa, b, . The isecond movement, which we call the Relief, is often in the first flat key, or any other key which promotes a subdued effect, and its accompaniments are commonly of a much lighter character ; but its Form is the same as that of the Principal March. The third movement is a repetition of the first, without its internal repetitions. It simply repeats Ia, b, IIIa, b, and FVa, b, omitting IIa, b, Va, b, and VIa, b. This Form is Three-fold in every respect. Its movements are Three-fold ; its first movement with all the repetitions, is Three-fold ; and its third movement (in which the repetitions are omitted) is Three-fold. This last is just the essence of the whole Form, and it resembles very much the Three-fold Song and Hymn-tune Form. See pp. 1.32 and 1.5-5. It diEEers, however, from them in this respect, that its principal dividing cadence is not at the end of the second part of the tune (whether Strain or Period), but at the end of the first part. The cadence of the first part Ia, b is made thus emphatic and important by its repetition in IIa, b. This Form agrees also with the Son» and Hymn-tune Forms in placing the liveliest and most varied part of the tune — the free fainiiasia — just before the close. VARIETIES. THE TBIO. QUICKSTEP. 175 1116. Examples. — The Foi-rn, as above described, is not always exactly followed even in the best works. The principal " dividiuff cadence " may be U instead of 8D (in the minor, L instead of D) making the third Three-fold Form instead of the first ; the repetitions may not always be the same ; the return to the principal subject in IVa, n is not always exact— is sometimes only a reminiscence, and some- times omitted ; and the Form is, especially in the larger works, "expanded " by means of Introduction, Episode, Symphony, and Coda. For a fuller exhibition of this Form, see " Construction Exercises," pp. 124 to 128. Becker's Choral March, "Come, merry comrades," below, (and for accompaniment. Reporter 502) will show the Form with some regTilarity. The March has an Introduction I a . Then Ib and Ic deliver the principal subject. The Periods Ha, b, c, are a repetition of the last Period. [Would it not sound better to omit the repetition of the Intro- duction ?] This completes the first Strain quite regularly. The second Strain at IHa, b introduces a new theme, "varied in style," but not different in key, with a prolonged cadence. This middle Period is then repeated for FVa, b. But there is no "return to ;he principal theme," only a " cadence ii the original key." There is in this Ma'ch no third Strain. The Re- lief March ipens with a drum symphony. Its first arain Ia, b and II a, b ending like the Pincipal March in the first sharp key. Thesecond Strain, as in the Princi- pal Marih, introduces a new theme, " vari;d ai style," at IHa and b. But it has a onger Coda, which we have called HIc. After this the Principal March is "epeatid straight on without its own re- letitions. In Mendelssohn's " War March of the I'iests," in " Athalie," the Principal ^rch follows exactly the lines laid down abve, except that the cadence of Ia, b is nt in the first sharp key. The new key U3d in HIa, b is the tirst sharp minor. Bii there is added to this Form fii'st a loo Episode of trumpet calls in related kej of the minor mode, and then a two- f ok repetition of the principal theme. ThiRelief llarch is in the fir.st fllat key, it fclows the lines laid down above, with the tceptions that the cadence of Ia, b is nt in the first shai-p key, and that Ha, (the repeat) is omitted. Before the Principal March is repeated, however, there is a sliort Episode, with trumpet calls, leading to it, and after the Principal March has been repeated straight through, there is a lengthened Coda in which the themes both of the Relief March and Princiijal March are developed, the latter on a pedal bass. In Costa's " March of the Israelites," in " Eli," we have for the first Sti-ain the principal theme and its repetition. This is quite regular, except that although it goes into the first sharp key, it is brought back again by a repetition. For the se- cond Strain or middle Period we have a new theme in the first sharp key, with an immediate return to the principal theme, and the whole of this is repeated for IIa, b. There is no third Strain. In the Relief March, which is in the first flat key, we have the principal theme, but there is no repetition of this. The second Strain or middle Period p.artly imitates the first theme a step higher, and then follows the return to the first theme. As in the Principal March there is no third Strain. Next follows the repetition of the Principal March straight through, and to this a Coda has been added, con- taining trumpet calls and chords. These examples will siilficiently show how this Form is employed, and how it is varied by the great masters. Thus " Form " ia used by the master not as a shackle on his life and movements, but as a guide to the general principles of beauty. 111c. Trio. — What we have called the Relief March, because it is intended as a relief to the ear, being generally given in a subdued key and with lighter accom- paniment, has been, and is commonly called the Trio (Treeoa). The word is also used in connection with the Dance Form, especially the Minuet. Originally the word was con-ectly used, because after the whole orchestra had been em- ployed on the Principal March or Minuet the Belief March was given to a trio of instruments. But now this is not at all necessarily the case, and the word "Trio," which properly means three instruments or three parts, becomes misleading, when used to represent a Musical Form. We find the word " Relief," which we sug- gested, to be very commonly accepted. \\\d. Quick Step. — A qiuck March, often in six -pulse measure, beating twice. CHOEAL MARCH KE\Eft. Vivace, ff [I'] Introduction. Id ":ir, .f Is .l,t:d' .r' \m .r V. E. Becker. {|1 .t.der M if .r' :d' .t I d' .m' Ir' : Ir :f .s [Ib.] Frincipal March. d' .m :j .771 !d' :t 176 2 THE MARCH FORM. Id' .1 18 6 Id' .1 :s Ir' .3 :b [Ic] Im' .r' :d' 11 .t.d'rt .1 Is .fe,s:se.l.ie,t|d' :t 2 Id' .1 :s |d '.t :1 Id' .t :1 6 B.C. [IUA.]Middle Period Ir' .d' :t .d' It :1 Is .»,,:» ., ||r' : — ||m' ^':1 ^tld' :— ji { Im' .,r':l ^ Id' :— U jl .8 -.m' js .f :r' |f .m ;d' {|8 .l^:d' .r'.m'lf :t Ic /[IIlB./ Id' .,d'.t .1 // .r',t Id' 9 D.S. Fine. f.Ab. Symphony. Id' .d' :d' . ||f'd' . xm . \m . -.m . I? .,1:8 .f Id' .,d':; .1 x,t % Relief March. |rn .re -.m is .,1:8 .f Im .re .m If .1,8 :f -^[IB.] {In .8,f:m Ir .,r :m .fe Is : — Is .,1:8 2 / j |m .re :m Is .,1 :« .f Im .re :m Im .ba,8o:l " list Time. D.S. jl 2nd tim- I Im .ba,3e:l 11 .se,l:t .1 Is : s : .i»if« THE MAKCH FOKH 1*7 % [IIIa.] Middle Period./ ff Im -m^m-.m .m,i»i|m .?»,m:ni .m Im .,ni:ba.sell .t :d' .r,r|r .r,r:r .r,r ( It :- .1 |8 Im .re :in .1 Is :iti Ir .de:r ,s If :r Im I Ife :3 It :- .1 Is :f Im :3 11 :— 11 .,s :m .d ( 14 [IIIo.] Coda. > j Im :r Id ,m,f:8 .1 Is .m :d' 11 .s,f:m ,r 11 .s,f:m .r \ 6 ;> I 1st Time. D.S. ||2nd. Ett.t.D.C.,, ) Id ,m,f;s ,1 Is .m :d' |1 .s,f:m .r d .m :d .m.m d .m ;"if , (I I I I II II [Ia]. I/ilroduction. m f- 6 :tg=g— '^- i-^z S [Ib]. Principal March, t:=t---fc ;fe=*= li^^s^^^^^^feig^ii^ 8 cres. — N- go] ii^^^j-^giE^=F^^^^g^ ^g^^=^^^Spgeiliii [nU] Middle Period. P [HIb]/ 178 IHK VABOH FOBM. THE DANCE FORMS. 179 112. The Dance Forms. — The Dance is another applied Form, made to suit the rhythm of the dancers' feet. For common Country Dances, any tune will answer this purpose which has a sufficiently marked rhythm. But for Dances which have a distinct " figure " a definite number of measures is required. 1126. The Waltz.— ThiB is a "round" Dance, in three-pulse measure. It makes much use of this kind of rhythm TAAfe j TAA TAA TAAfe | TAA TAA, Or TAATAI I TAA -AA TAA | TAA -AA TAATAI I TAA -AA TAA I TAA -AA. Its Periods are of eight or ot sixteen measures. See Gvmg'l's Waltz, p. 180. It is generally Three-fold. Some composers add an In- troduction and a Coda, -which are, of course, made very distinct from the Waltz itself. In "sets" of five Waltzes there is not necessarily any fixed relation be- tween the melodies and keys of the different Waltzes. There must not, how- ever, be any jar, and the last Waltz should remind the ear of the first. 112c. TVie Mazurka. — A PoUsh national Dance of lively style, in three-pulse mea- sure, making much use of the rhythm I TAAfe TAA TAA. 112d. The Redowa. — A Bohemian Dance in slow three-pulse measiu'e, having as a characteristic rhythm | TAAfe TAAfe TAA. 112e. Polacca or Polonaise. — ^A Polish Dance of sentimental style, in three-pulse measure, ending its phrases on the third pulse of the measure. A piece of music founded on this Form. 112/. Saraband. A Moorish dance for a single performer, slow and stately, ia three-pulse measure, with emphasis on the second pulse of the measure. 112^. Bolero or Cachuca. — A Spanish Dancing-song in thiee-pulse measure, with castanets. 1124. Chaconne or Passacaglio. — A ra- ther slow Dance in three-pulse measure, consisting generally of variations on a constantly recurring Bass. 112^. Courante.—An. old French Dance, in three-pulse measure. 112fc. Farandoule. — An exciting dance in six-pulse measure, from the South-east of France. Sometimes known as the Spanish Dance. 112?. Tarantella. — A lively Neapolitan Dance, in six-pulse measure, with a tam- bourine. 112m. Forlana. — A lively "Venetian Dance, in six-pulse measure. 112?i. Fandango. — A lively Spanish Dance, in three-pulse measure, accom- panied by castanets and the guitar. 112o. Jig, Oigue, and Giga. — A lively Dance of a pastoral character, generally in six-pulse measure. With leaping. 112jo. Dance. Reel. — A lively rustic Scotch 1123. Minuet. — An old majestic Dance, in three-pulse measure. It consists of two Periods, each containing eight mea- sures, which are repeated. See Mozart's Minuet, p. 183. Classical music founded on the Minuet Form does not strictly foUow these rhythmical measurements. 112r. Oalliard, Romanesca, Paspy, or Passa mezzo. — An old Italian Dance, in three-pulse measiu-e, the precursor of the Minuet, but more lively. 112s. Kalamaika. — A bright Hungarian Dance, in three-pulse measure. W2t. handler. — An old Styrian Dance of the Waltz kind, in three-pulse measure. H2«. Monferina. — A gay Piedmontese Dance, in six-pulse measure. 112y. Polka.—A Bohemian Dance, very lively, in two or four pulse measure, hav- ing the characteristic rhythm | TAAtefe TAA. \12w. Schotiische. — A lively Dance, in two-pulse or foiir-pulse measiu-e. 112x. Quadrille. — A Dance consisting of five movements or "figures" in two- pulse measure or in six-pulse measure beating twice. The first and thnd figures are in the following Form : — Ia, b (8 meas.) Dance. IIa, b (8) First Relief. ULa, b (8) Return to Dance. rVA,B (8) Second Relief. Va, b (8) Ee- tium to Dance. The second and fourth figures are in the following Form : — Ia, b (8) Dance. IIa, b (16) Relief. IHa, b (8) Return to Dance. The Form of the Finale is as follows : — Ia, b (16) Dance. IIa, b (16) Relief. niA, b (16) Return to Dance. The first and third figures with their reliefs are played twice ; the second and f oui-th figures with their reliefs are played four times. 180 THE DANCE FORMS. 112y. Galop. — A quick Dance, in two- pulse measure, often forming one move- ment in a "set" of Quadrilles. 112«. Bouree. — An old French Dance- tune, in four-pxilse measure and lively style, commencing at the fourth pulse. 112aa. Oavot. — An old Dance-tirne, in two-pulse or four-pulse measure. Lively but dignified in style, commencing at the half measure. 112JJ. Boutade. — AFrenchDance, sup- posed to be impromptu. 112cc. Branle or BrauU. — A gay French Dance-tune, in which the principal theme constantly occurs. l\2dd. Rigadoon. — An old gay dance, generally in four-pulse measure. 112ee. Saltarella or Sauteuse, Siciliana. — A dance in which leaping is introduced, in tripletted four-pulse measure. 112jf. Strathspey.— A Scotch dance, in two-pulse measure, in which the " Scotch- snap" (tafaAi) is introduced. KBT F. l,t,l:8. :8'. / f t, SOLDATEN LIEDER WALTZ. (By permUaion.) l.t.l:s. -.s', f : : t, • l,t,l:8. :8' Josef Qcno'l. 1 .t .1 : 8 , :l.t.l s . :s'. :s' . P ;s . :s . :t :s 8,. :f :t :s :f s, . :t :f :t :s :f l,t,l:8. :l,t,l d,. :m| :8| . :d' :d' :8 :s d . :m :m f'.8',f' :t . :f',8',f' :t :t :3 :s I, :r :r •ml -rl :t :t :s :3 :f :f d'. :1'. :8' . ife' :— :s' :1 . :8 . fe :— :s \»f d' 1 re l,t ,1 :8 . -.1 ,t ,1 P :t :s 8, . :f :t 8, . :f I .t ,1 :8 . :1 .t .1 d, . :i«i, . C.t. fn',d».t':f' . :1' :t :s f 8,. T s'.l'.8':nii . :1' :d' . :s . :m . :d . THE DANCE FORMS. 181 f'.s'.f'tl . :t :r r' . :1 1 . :f f . :r f.F. 1st Time, "'s : D.C. f.F. 2nd Time. >i's :8, : P - .m, n't . : J's . :r . :s :s, n't ! d's : : d — — — t, - .1, 8| — — B, : m m m n f f f : d d d d t, t, t, : 8. S| S| s, 8| Si 8, d, Q. Tl r, f :— :— f :f t, :t, :m :- .r f :f t, :t, :d :1. ma : — : — — :fe, :- .fe, s, :— : «/ IZ ^=- ima :i»ia :ma :ma '.m : :d :d :d :d :d : fe, 1. s, :s, :- .8, 8| — — - .se, 1. : P f f f : :in •.m r r r : :d :d t, t, t, : s. S| S| IstTime. D.8. 2nd Time, d : 182 GUNO I, S SOLDATEN LIEDEK. 35: It :^,L#-1 •^igg' g::==:r:bW i*= ;^ ^l^i^S^^fJ^ — P, I F- 3z5z li lN-^'"i 1^ 3?: 3t ^ * * ,^»^ -I L-_t. 5^^=^^ ^ -y— U: t fc^ It: tLiU-U— b±t±ta ^^^^m s^ 3/ P it,_i tt-Msi^ ^ . ^^^ t3! 1 M J-=r l^^i^^^ll I IstTime. !| ^ife^2E^^ ?*=5^t ■g- tig g -I*- -g- •£' •g' ?• t— 2nd Time. 1 1 ^^1===^^^^ -^IT IsJlisS: $ =t==ft ^iS =r— g^-y- J^^5^^^^ =*=3. ' TRS hkvcb ramus. 188 list Time. ||2ndTime.| ;&=pi 35^E35 3SE ^- -^n- '^~ w^^^^^^^^^^^^^m^^ KEY C. P [Ia, b.] / '.S .,s :t,d'.t,d' d .m :s .d' :s .m d :— :— MmUETTO. d .s :m ,s :d .s d :— : — Mozart. :de',r'.de',r \ t| .r :s .t :s .r t, :- :- :t .,8 t, .s :r .3 :f .s :s' :s' :d' :ta :d' :d' se',1'.- :l',f'.- :fSr', :— :s',f'.ni',r' :1 :t P D.C. :S=[nA, B.]. I'.s'.l'.s' :l',sM',8'' -.d' :1',8'.1',8' f :f' :(>i',f'.fe',8' :d' :s ; r' t 8 :r' :t :s !d' :s :— :t' .,8' 6 dim. P D.S. Fine d" :d« :d« d»,l'.- :l',f'.- :f',r'.- 8' : — •.8',f'.ni',r' d' ; d' :* :d' d7 S :1 :t d' :d' :d' d' . :t s :s :se 1 ; :s d' : — :f' m' : m •.m :iii f : — :f PI :f :b d' :d 184 THE DANCE F0EM3, :i : 8 ,d' . t ,1 [ 8 .d'.m'.d' : t ,8,.t ,d' |de',r'.f' ,t : r',d' . m',s i Id :- .r m :r if ::n In the first "Variation the melody is given to the second violin, while the first violin plays a light and lively accompaniment above it full of pretty figures, the viola and violincello being silent throughout, thus — 8 ,f .1 ,f :re,m,t|,d .t, :d In the second "Variation, the melody is given to the violoncello, the viola only entering occasionally, and the first and second violins play elegant accompani- ments in which there is much syncopa- tion, thus — In the third "Variation, the viola which was so quiet before, now takes the lead- ing part. The violoncello is frequently absent. So also are the first and second violins. The effect is much lighter than the last variation, thus — THE EOWDO POEM. 187 In the fourth and last Variation, the melody is given aguin to the first violin, and the other instruments play an ac- companiment, ■which at first carries the music into the minor mode, and after- wards produces a variety of transitional and chromatic effects, thus — Id l(d. |1, fe, It r If :it Sl — |r :d — t, 1 — :d », — |se, :1 r.t,:d tj :I2 m, :1, Some composers carry the "Variation I'oim" much further than this. They throw the theme into a new "Form," such as the Dance or the Fugue. It ia not every theme that can be treated in such a way. The following additional illustrations from Czemy's " School of Practical Compo- sition " will be interesting to the student. Variation by Incidentals. ^^^^m^^^m^^^^. Canon. Tempo di Minuetto. It,-S lt|,-S| d' d :-,m':r',d' : - ,it : r ,d t.d'.r' t,d.r .m,s d' .d',d':d' It .It , It : It .d' .It :f .d' .It d' :t .1 It :r , / .it„-s,:d .,it .it„-s,:d| .,m, r ,d .t„d r„d|.tj,d| P dol. d .S,S .8 d, .d,d :d ,s .d :s :t, ■ S .d s, .s,s .s . 114. The Hondo Form. — The Kondo appears both as a vocal and an instrumental Form. This Form is distinguished for the beauty of its episodes. But its chief characteristic is the re-appearance or " coming round again " of a theme previously heard. It is essential that this re-appearance should be in the same key and mode, else it would form a Variation or Thematic 188 THE HONDO FORM. Development, rather than a Rondo. The Rondo may have one theme, two themes or three themes. But where more than one theme is used, for the sake of unity, the first or principal theme is made to '' come round " more frequently than the others. The Rondo finds its variety in the beautiful runs and figures of its episodes, and its unity in the recurrence of its themes, and in the "places" of the rhythmic structure at which they occur. The one-theme Rondo is the most simple and the most common ; the two-theme Rondo is that which is chiefly used for the Finale to a Sonata or Symphony. The character of the Rondo, like that of Repetition generally (see above, p, 97), is quiet and satisfying. 1146. The One-theme Hondo.— This is illustrated by " La Virginella " — a speci- men of those old songs in which the theme was taken up by all the singers and the episodes sung (sometimes ex- temporized) by a single voice. This Hondo may be analysed thus — Li, B (8) Instrumental Introduction , Ic, D (8) Theme , Ie, f (8) First Episode, in Ist S key ; IIa, b (8) Theme in original key , He, D (8) Second Episode in Eel. Min. and ist { Min. ; EEIa, b (8) Theme in original key , nic, D (8) Third Episode, with Re- miniscence of Theme ; IHb (6) Coda. Ibis manifestly a Three-fold Fonn, and adopting the general rule that in Three- fold Forms the second great cadence is the principal dividing one, we must say that it is in the /o«r(A Three-fold Form. See " Fourth cadence design," p. 124. 114c. The Three-theme nondo.—Thia is illustrated by the Finale of Mozart's Sonata in A major. It is called a " Rondo alia Turca," and a long Coda in Turkish- drum style is omitted. The accompani- ments also are omitted ; they are almost entirely rhythmic chordal. The piece may be analysed thus — Ia, b (16) Pi-incipal Theme, closing in Ist j key IIa (8) First Episode in original key IIb (8) Pi-incipal Theme Ho (8^ First Episode U.D (8) Principal Theme HIa, b (IP) Second Theme in Major of same Tonic rV'A, b (16) Third Theme in Rel. Min. of last key, closing in 1st J Va (8) Second Episode in Major of Principal Tonic Vb Third Theme in Eel. Min. of last key Vc (8) Second Episode repeated Vd Third Theme repeated VIA, B (16) Second Theme VHa, b (16) Same as Ia, b VillA, B, c, D (32) Same as Ha, b, o, d IXa, b (16) Same aa TTTa, b, with doubled rhythm The first Strain being repeated at the close, clearly shows us what is the Strain, and indicates that this Rondo is in Three- fold Form. As the relative major, cor- responds in minor tunes to the first sharp key, we must describe it as in the Jirst Three-fold Form. What we have called the third theme is very much Uke an episode in style, but as it is treated by repetition exactly in the same way as the principal theme is at first treated, and as it is to be expected, where there are three themes, that they should be in different keys or very different styles, we prefer to regard it as a third theme. It should be noticed that the first themo occurs (at beginning and in the middle) four times in the first Strain, and four times in the third Strain, making eight times ; that the second theme occurs twice at the end of the first Strain, twice at the end of the second Strain, and twice at the end of the third Strain, mak- ing six times ; and that the third theme occurs only /our times, and that only in the middle Sti'ain. It must by no means be. supposed that these forms are exactly followed in other Rondos. Unity and variety may blend their efi'ects together in many other ways than these, even within the limits of a Rondo Tor fuller information on the Rondo Form, see " Construction Exer- cises " and " Historical Specimens." TTIK RONDO FORM. 189 LA VIRGINELLA. KEv G. Moderato. (Rondo). [Ia, n.] Instrumental Introduction. d : — [HI :3 d .s,:ni .s,|d .s,:m .s, a mezza voce. s .f -.m.f ir t,.s,:r .s,|f ,s,:r .s m : — |f .r .m .d d .s,:in .s,|r .8,:d .s, t,.8,:r .8, |r d :- - 1" :s 1 :-.t|d' : .1 3 :ni 1 r :8 P poe. f J) ( |t,.s, :r.s, .d,:s, .iii,|d .8,:p) .8, d .s,:iii .d |I .d :f .d n .d :n .d |t,.r :t|,r 8 d :- : [Ic, D.] Theme. d :— \m :s Vir - gins in 8.f:m.f|r : .f beau - ty re- m : — sem - d :— 1 : d.S,:if1 .E ,|d .s,:ii .r ) d' .- I May. d :- I f.G. [IIa, b.] Theme in Original Key. ^Hi : — jm :s Vir - gins in 'd .8|:in .8, |d .s, :n .s. 3 .f :tn .f |r : .f ^ beau - ty re-/ PI :m .3, :-.t If .r ble |r .3, :rt) d the :d .s, r :- .m |r :r .3, d :— \m :» sem d.s. rose, t,.s, :r .3, It, .8, Fear - ful by .d, :s, .m, |d .s, :ni .s 6 1 Id' ty : .1 their :f .d s -.m charms m .d :iii .d |r to iVr :s dis - :t, .1- d :- 1 : du :f .d close. d .m :s, .d in, .8, id. [lie, D.] 2nd Episode in Eel. Min. and 1st t Min 8 .f :- .m |f : — m :— im :1 If we per - d .1 -.m .1, |d .1, :i>i .1, plex them r.l,:f .l.ir .1, :f .1, - |1 :s while in their i d .1, :iti .1, |d .1, :ni .1, \m prime, t,.s, :r .3, |d ,3, ;tn .3, D.t. Lah is B. "1 :— |r' :f' Cares soon may <*f.r :l.r |f .r :1 .r m' :— |1 :f' \ vex them, and I AjjdA^\m .l,:f .1,) m' ;d' |t :m' short - en their d .1 :d .1 |t, .se :t| .se [IIIa, b.] Theme in Orig. Key. f.G, 1 :— I : fd :— \n :% \ time. Vir - gins in f 1 : — I : '^d.s,:ni .3, |d .s, :ni .s,/ i THB BONDO FOKM. 191 8 .f -.n.f |r .f m :— |f .r :m .d sem - ble the r :- .m |r : ^ beau - ty re- rose, i t..S| :r .s |f .S| :r .s. d .s, :ni .s, |r .s, :d .s, t,.s, :r .s, |t, .8, :r .b, ^ 6 d :— \m :s Fear - ful by 1 :-.t |d' : .1 du - ty their s :m |r :s ^ charms to dis - .d| :8|.m| |d .s, :n .s, d .1, :f .d |1 .d :f .d m .A :m .d |t, .r -.t, .r y 8 [II d :- 1 : [c, D.] Zrd Episode, ivith Reminiscence of Theme. 1 :— |d' :1 s :— Id : close, Fra - grance ex - hal - ing, d .m, :s,.m, |d .en, '.s, .m. d.f,:l,.f, Id .f, :l,.f, d .m, :s, .ni| |d .m, :S| .m. 3 1 :- Id' :1 Joy they im - s :- .f jm : part. ^ d :— |Pi :8 Each sense re - d.f, :l,.f, Id .f,:l,.f, d .i>i| 's,.ni| |d .cii ; s, .m. .d| :s, .m, |d .s, :ni .s, 6 r. 1 :-.t |d' : .1 gal - ing, sweet s :ni |r :s d :- 1 : pride of the heart. / d .m, : s, .ni| |d .m, :8, .m, d.l, :f .d |1 : m .d :i»i .d |t, .r :t, .r [IIIe.] Coda. 1 ;— |d' 1 :d' .1 1 :- |d' .1 :d' .1 192 THE EOXDO FOHM. [Ia, B.] lySTBUirKKTAI, lyTBODOCTIOy. *^ 1 — iTt g^ =^=*::3: 3Ci=S StJ=^: «=j:i:*= r I* !*-izg= S=ff: S^ E^ tfcea F=g-- ri f I r i fi ^I'^ri r [Ie, f.] i^iVjt Episode in Ist sharp key. ^IS :?^ ::g^::e -f*-r I" itctr ^ ^ tmrrnri^^ F- !»l ^1 [Ha, b.] Theme in original hey. ^^^g '^C^^^BZ^^E^^ 1 I t ■ t LjI >jj — ' — • > ' ■ ' — ^ ^ — ■ 8 THE RONDO FORM. [He, D.] Second Episnde in Hcl. Min. and \.< g ?Erf=^ ^ isg^fefy?;. iT -e n J.- ""^ =1= B^^JEs^^^^^g^l^ 194 THE ROOT J FOEM. RONDO ALLA TURCA, from Mozart's Sonata in A Major. KEY C. Lah is A. Allegrino alia Turea. Ia, b. Princijjal Theme, closing in \st Sharp Key. t r' /' 0 «' |: ,1 .se,l |d' . : ,d':t,d'|m' . : ,iti':re>'|l' .se',l':l' .se'.r G.t. 5 sH^ , . d 16 D.S. :g / VIA, B. Second Themt j|f',ni'.r*,d':t,d'.r,t|d',r'.i>i',d':se,l.t,se|l lid' .r' jm' :d' .r' » 3 I in' .r' :d' .t 11 .t :d' .r' It .s :d' .r' Jm' :d' .r' | VIIa, b. Same as Ia, b. 7 D.S. s.d.f.C. Lis A. ri IP' .r' :d' .t 11 .r' :t .s Id' ||r''i'l.se,i Id' :d' .t,d'| 3 /' <• t' Jim' :m' .re>' IT .se',1' :1' ,se',l' Id^ :1' .d» \ 6G.t. sH' . . d'r' . . d'r' . f.C. D.S. [jt'm'.r' :d' .r' Im' .r' :d' .r' Im' .r' :d' .t I im' 11 % VIIIa, b, c, d. Same as IIa, b, c, d. I' . V [:i«i' ,f' Is' .s' :8' .f',ni'lr' :iti' .f Is' .a' :s' .f',ni'|r' :d' .r' j 6. /' . /' « ||ni' .n' :m' .r'.d'lt :d' .r' In' .tn' :in' .r'.d'lt :1 .se.lj 10 ri /• «i «• Md' . :d- .t ,d' |m' . :ni' .re',iri' 11' .se',1' ;1' .se',1' | 13 . . . . tr. D.S. Md» :1' .t' |d« .t' :1' .se' 11' .n' :f' .r' Id' :t .,lt|l 11 § IXa, b. Same as IIIa, b, with doubled rhythm. A.t.m.l. {•.»d, •;5Kpij?- VHIa, b, c, d. Same as TTa, b, c, d. IXa, b. ;?ame as HIa, b, with doubled rhythm. =*=^'^ EEEfesjEEfefe^ pj=^-gig5s!r;LrfT'F=g^pj=^-hgi ^ # s= -'^ A long Coda in Tuikish dinim style is omitted. 198 THE HAYDN FOEJI. 115. The Haydn or First Movement Form.— The two great principles of laeauty in Music, Variety and Unity, find their chief embodiments, the first in Episode, and the second in Thematic Development. Episode reaches its greatest perfection in the Rondo Foi-m, and Thematic Development in the Fugue. There is so much Variety — so much Episode — in the Rondo Form, that is has to be counterbalanced by absolute sameness in the repetition of the Theme. There is so much Unity — so much Thematic Development — in the Fugue, that it has to be counter- balanced by a great number of contrivances to secure Variety. But there is a Form which combines the two principles of Episode and Thematic Development in the highest degree ; and this we call, after its chief originator and propagator, the Haydn Form. The Haydn Form has two Themes. The second generally differs from the first in being more song-like, and being in the first sharp key. An Exposition, or setting-forth, of these two Themes, set oS by Episodes, and connected by Guides, is made in the first Strain of the Form. The second Strain is, in its first part, a Thematic Development of the two Themes ; and in its second part, a Recapitulation of those Themes in the original key. Thus the idea of the Haydn Form is Three-fold — " Exposition — Development — Recapitulation." But its rhythmical structure is Two-fold, for the Exposition is repeated ; and the Development and Recapitulation are, when repeated, repeated together. This Form should be closely studied, because it is used in nearly all instrumental Quartets, Sonatas, Overtures, and Symphonies. It is difficult to employ it in vocal music, because that does not offer sufficient scope for the Development, either in the ranges of the voices, or in the differences of quality or timbre, as in the string, wind and reed instruments ; besides, it would be impossible to produce with voices that rapidity and delicacy of Episode which is so easily obtained from instruments. repeat a Eecapitulation without hearing 1156. Examples. — Above is given the general outline of this Form. It should also he noticed that the principal theme, when first announced, commonly leads to a cadence in the new key or mode in which the second theme appears. This cadence produces the effects of incom- pleteness and expectancy, preparing the again the various keys, motions, and other devices of the Development would be wearisome. The First Movement in Beethoven's " Sonata in G llin^jr will illustrate this Form, if the student bears in mind that where in minor mode music a modulation ear for the second theme. But in the is made to the relative major, there in Recapitulation, when it is desirable to I major mode music a transition would be bring the ear home to the principal key I made to the first sharp key. This piece of the piece, the second theme is brought [ may be analysed as follows : — back to that principal key, by the first First Straix. theme being made to close in it. Thusare Ia. First Theme goes into Eel. Maj., produced the effects of completeness and and Guide , satisfaction. It should also be noticed Ib. Second Theme in Eel. Maj., first that all the devices of Introduction, Epi- Episode, Guide, and second Theme sode, Symphony, Guide, and Coda, (see IIa, b. Eepetition of Ia, b above, pp. lis, 119) are freely used in all j Seco.vd Strain. parts of the Form. The rea.son why De- HIa. Second Theme in 1st 12 key a 7th velopment and Rf'cjtpitulation have to be below and widened, Guide to Cadence, repeated together is that, to repeat a De- second Episode , velopment would be ineff'ective, and to TTTr Second Theme going into 1st ( key ANALYSES OF BEETHOVEN AND HAYDN. lyy and Rel. Min. Guide, thiid Episode ; IVa. Kecapitulation of tixst Theme, not leaving the first key and mode, do. in left hand, fourth Episode, Guide , IVb. Second Theme in Minor mode, fifth Episode, imitating first, and ex- tended. Second Theme in left hand , rVc. Coda going into Major. It must not, however, be supposed that musical genius coniines itself very pre- cisely to the " lines of construction" thus drawn out. For example, the proper place for development in this Form is at the beginning of the second Strain. It is commonly reckoned enough in the first Strain to announce the subjects clearly, and to "set them off " by means of Epi- sode, Symphony, Guide or Coda, and no one can be simpler or plainer than Haydn when he pleases. But in the Finale to bis Symphony in D he chose to vary the Form which we have called by his name. There even the first Strain is full of de- velopment, as may be seen from the Finale printed below, and the Thematic Analysis above, p. 111. In so small a book it was impossible to make room for the second Strain of this Finale, but with the help of the note on p. 212, the stu- dent will be able to realize the following analysis. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ Ia. First Theme, do. repeated with D cadence, do. an octave higher , In. First Episode ; Ha. First Theme in 1st 12 key, do. in left hand, do. in Rel. Min., Guide, first Theme in prin. key, do. in Rel. Min., do in 1st | key, Guide ; IIb. Second Episode ; EEIa. First Theme in 1st $ key, do. re- peated , HIb. Third Episode ; IVa. Second Theme, Two-fold Figure, Guide , IVb. Fourth Episode, Coda ; — Second Strain. Ia. First phrase of first Theme in 1st J key, with imitation of second phrase in Bass. Do. inverted and in pi-in. key, do. in 1st & key (left hand), first phrase of second Theme "shortened" and ti-eated imitatively , Id. First Episode , Ic. Imitation of second Episode of first Strain ; IIa, b. Second Theme a step higher, do. in original key and in left hand, • JJuide, do. in 1st | key ; HIa. First Theme in prin. key , HIb. First Episode, beginning with re- petition of Ib followed by a similar figure extended with transition ; IVa. First Theme in piin. key, in left hand, with Guide , IVb. Second Episode like IIb in 1st J key, and in higher octave followed by Figures and Guide like the close of HIb ; Va. Second Theme beginning in 1st 6 key, going to prin. key, as in IVa , Vb. Short Symphony preparing for first phrase of tiist Theme, imitated in lower octave, in left hand, in upper octave, and in 1st t key , Vc, D. Episode of run-like Figui-es, Guide, &c. ; VIa. First Theme complete followed by second part of the same foui' times , VIb. Chordal Coda 115c. History. — Philip Emanuel Bacli and Schobert, in the early part of the eighteenth century, published Sonatas in which one or more of the movements cor- responded in design with that above de- scribed. They employed two themes, and they exhibited them in Exposition, in Development, and in Recapitulation. They also employed the related keys in much the same way. Handel appears to have adopted this Form, or something like it, in some of his Italian opera songs, and our readers will notice how closely it is approached in " Evei-y Valley," p. 156. The two themes are announced in the in- strumental introduction, although the second is not in the fii-st shai-p key, and the first closes with a Dominant cadence instead of a first sharp cadence. Although this Exposition is brief, the Development in the vocal part is elaborate, and the Recapitulation in the nine measures of instrumental Coda is very complete. But it is generally acknowledged that the Form, as now received and approved, was developed and made known through all Europe by the genius of Haydn. He was closely followed by Mozart. And Beet- hoven brought the Form to its highest perfection. 115d. Name of this Form. — As this Form is chiefly used in Sonatas, it has been called the " Sonata Foi-m," but as Sonatas have several movements, which may be in the Rondo Form, the Variation Form, or the Minuet Foitu, as well as this special Form, we do not know, when this phrase is used, whether tlie Form of the whole Sonata or only one movement is meant. This double meaning is veiy puzzling, even in the wTitings and con- versations of musicians. Again, as this Form is commonly used for Vae first move- ment of a Sonata, it has been called the "First Movement" Form. But the Form is used sometimes for the last movement, and sometimes for other movements, and besides, it is not always used for the first movement, so that this title also is mis- leading. As Haydn is distinguished among all musicians for tlie study of the beautiful in Form, and as his well-known quartet music for stringed iustrvunenta was undoubtedly the means of making this particular Form so well known and so well understood as it is at present, everyone will know what we mean when we speak of this as the Haydn Form. 200 THE HiYDN FORM. FIRST MOVESIENT. KEV B;^. Lah is G. Andante. M. 92. Beethoven, Op. 49, 'No. 1. [I a] \st Theme. 2} d ■1, :se| .1 1 mjp r — d •1| :se ■1. mjp f :— .m .d :r .d :t, .1, m, t| .se, se, .m. ba, .se. d 1, .m .d :r :t, .d .1, 1| •f. :1. .r m se :1 .m r .le :t .r d .1 i^_ .f 1^ .,t,l f ;se, ,n^ d j .m tn : .d se, : .se, 1, :r d :t, . 9 21h fp r : — iti, :- d .lj_ :se, fp J.' Goes into Rel. M f :- .f .m .d :r :t, •1, t, se .se, :1| , .m, :ba • t, , .se, d 1, .d :r :t, .d ■1. fi ■f. :1, .t, :- .r. 13 cres. P -,m , s,f e : 1 ,s . f ,m d : m, : 2 /^ f T id .,ni : s . s mf derm n .r :r 1, .r -.1, f, :fe, f .t :t .t Guid4. [Ib.] 2nd Theme. t,dr dolce. • • d,t|.l|,S|:fei,s,.l„S|; f .t, :t, .t, r : I s, : I t„s.r ,s :f ,s.r ,s d' .,m' :s' .8 i_J}^ :t| .t, I ni,s.d,s :ni,s .d,s t|,s.r ,S|:f ,s.r ,8 , im.s.d.s ;ni,s .d ,s , t|,s.r,3 :f ,s .r ,s 6 1«^ Episode. d .,r:n ,d .r ,ni i f .,s:l,t.d',l fe.s.l ,8:s ,f .ni,r re,i>i.f ,i»i:s ,f .m.r ni,s.d,8:ta|,S|.d,s ' l„f .d,f :f|,f :d,f s, ,m.d ,m:S|,f .t|,f 10^ d .,r :ni ,d .r ,ni ;; cres. R,s.d ,s;ta|,s .d,s l„f .d,f :f|,f .d,f 'm|,ni.d ,ni:f|,r .l|,r s„i>i.d ,tn:S|,f .t|,f f ,m .re,n : s ,f .m ,r 2nd Theme. • .r,m m,s fe,s:l,s.£,m d, : f .t, :t| .t, r,s.f,s;r ,s,f,s Guide. ni,s.fe,s:l,s.f,i»i d, : f .t, :t, .t, r,s.f,s:r ,s.f,3 :s,. D.C. :d . THE HAYDN FORM. 201 f.Ej?. rillA-l Do , in \st \) Key. Guide to Cadence. tr. , tr. • tr. p .«,s tr. r .s, :S| .S| . tr. r .s, :3, .s, . tr. r .f, :f, .f, m, .S| :d .01 ./:> n, .s, :d .PI r .f :tj_ s, r :f7~ f, :s, 2nd EjAsode. y.r'.d' d .r' :m' . d, .d' :d' . t . : .f'.m'.r' .f :f' . d' ..d'lt'.d^.t'.r .s' :s' ,s' . m' : m' .n' 8ell'.s',f':in',r'.l',8' £' .n' : ,n'r'.fW,r'd 'rl f Iml rMI '^ ^< .3' :s' .& :d' d',t .t : .fW.s'f ,iii'r' ' r'.d'.d' : ,d'^t'.r3d2,t',l'\ •s' is' .s' .n' : m' .m' 12 se',1' .s'.f in'.r' .f .t p\lllyi.'\ 2nd Theme.. . r ,ni' .t ,d' d'.ni' .re'.m' :f' ,ni' .r',d' ni',s'.fe',3':l',s' .f'.m' d', : r .se :se .se f .t :t .t t ,ni' . r' ,n' : t ,m' . r' ,m' ) r',s' .f ,8' :r',s' .f'.s' \ Bb.t. ir : .t ,d' \ ■h.t[ 'r ,m .f ,in :r ,d .t, ,1, ) 5/ . . r' ,se :se .se r .se, :se, .se, 1 :t 1, :t, P Guide. r' .d' :t .1 |r .d :t, .1, seiim-tiirr :r ,m .t ,ni d ,m .l|,iii :se„n .t|,in l,,ni .d ,m :f|,re.l,,re , Srd Episode. Two-fold Fig. se : ,m .re,Ki se, : m, ,m .se|,ni it, .m .se„m 1 . : ,m .re,m d . : m .m .l,,ni ;d ,ni .l|,ni t, , : ,n .re,m m, ,m .sei,ni :t,,n) .se>(n 202 11 THE HATDN FOBH. Three-fold Fig. sf 1 : ,n . re,ni t, de r :- .d d • i>ii,in .1, m :d ,ni . li,m m. ni .se„n : mi.m .lei.m tn ,n . le ,iTi :t|,:n .le„ni 14 t, .t :de . de' r S : - .d t, . t :de .de' PI, ,m .se ,in :nii jPi . le„in ni, ,ni .le|,ni ; t,,ni .1,," m, ,11 . seiiCi iiH, jn .le,^ 17 Guide. [IVa.] 1st Theme. P mfp r .r' :re re' m .1, : se, .1, r PI, :"- n t. m, :se , .1, mfp f .d : r t, .d so :1 se, se, :1, m, :ba, .t, .se, 3 d .1, .7\ r .le :t .r — 1. : — ■ d .m 1, .d :r ill .d r, .f 1 ;1, .r d .d m , : se, . : .n .86, 7 d .1 :t, f 1. .,t,l, ! se. • Do , ,m in left hand. d'.in :t ,in .1 ,« :r , .d , m :r d t. .m d' 1 :se .1 li :r, m, - , 10 se,m .18,01 :ba,se .1 ,t r« :— n : — 13 ^th Episode. in' ,s .s',s :f' ,s .in',3 .n,', :r', .d'. d' .d' :t .d' d',11! .m' ,rn ;r',i«i .d',ni .d', :t , .1 , d' .1 :se .1 t ,8 .fe,s :1 ,t .d',r« r',n .d' ,ni :t ,r .1 ,d t , .1 , :se, . 88 .1 :n ,f ,t, .f ,in :r ,d .t,,l, / 16 Guide. se„l|.t, ,le|:t|,de .r ,de P m . [IVb,] Second Theme in Eel. Minor. se, r .se, :se, .se, dolce. se,/i ,t, ,ni \T jn .t, ,i Ig • Sc^ • 1 2 fg . :r, . Is .t>1« ISCa .fa lu >oia :seo .fa Ig .iHg :1^ .iTj de2. idSj, 204 HAYDN FORM. [Ia.] 1st Theme. Andante. ^ = 92 d2Z ^'^3E^ ^M^^^^^^^=^^=^t^ ^-S ^ m m ^ Goes into Eel. Maj. J^'^'^^^^ .^f >f->r [1 1 1 A.] do. in 1st b. key. Guide to Cadence, tr. tr. tr. 2nd Episode. IIATDN FORM. 206 -fe|^gq4f^ a^:^j^5EE^^^^^^^5^^ Two-fold Fig. ^i^^i^^lg^^^^g^^gj Three-fold Fig^ fe i^^=fe£=^fi^ */ m-^-m- -ft -^- .^. -^ -msf». .ft. 4t. .^ -Mr Jk. a .* jb_ ,.•,-.«> gi»We. [IVa.] Isl! Theme. ^ /)o., 2« }efl hand. ^*irf.3ir=^ L.;jjLJi ^g^g^iEi^^^i^^g^"^*;^^:] MHi^f^ «=: St t^^EiiE^E^ 206 5th Episode, imitating Ist uffd extended 6 T -— 1 5 5 i THE HATDN FOBM. FINALE TO SYMPHONY IN D. KRY D. Allegro con spirito. 207 [lA.] : I : P d :- I- :- a. :- )- :- — :- I— :S' First Theme. :f ir :- P d :- I- :- d. :- I- :- Haydn. Id :- 6. . s, :8. I r : r .m d |r :- d :- I- :- - :- |- :- d :- |- :- - :- |- :- d, :— I- :- - :— |- :— d, :- |- :- Bo., repeated witAJ) Cad. 8 :f |r :— f :ni |d 9. . . 8, :s, |r :r.Pi d :- I- :- d, :- I- :- 13 s :s Ir' :r'.ni' |t :tT f.m:f .8 |f : — Id :- I- :- 17 8 :8 |r' :r'.ni' |t :t7 f.i : : Sa : • Making, -with Runs, FiguicB, and Guides, tlie third Episode. TITK HAYDN BORM. 211 f.D. [IVa dese : — ] 1- Thc Second Thtme. :- |f' :— im' P s r' : — 1— ._ t :- 1- "t : — 1- ~4z — se :— 1 — V :- 1- :- Id :- - I- t — |1 f IPi' r' — Id' 1 — 1- A.t. sd :- It, :- ••'s :— |f ' m : — |r "•s, :— I— 1 ii m — ,r d — It, — — 1 — :- Id :- f :- Id - :- Id, Two-fold Figure or Sequence. 1, :- |r d, :- If, fi 1, :- If, t, : — 1- : — r. : — 1 — : — P f, : — |s, : — r, :— |m, : — 12 t, : G If r, .— Id t, •_ fi Id s, : — |1, 16 f 1 1, : — 1 f : 1 f. : — 1 Guide ending in Soft Expectant Chords. 1 ; — f : — 1- 1- : — s m : — If |r P r ; — 1 — .,_ m •.f |3 t, : — 1 — : — — : — 1- d :- I PP m_ :— I s, :— I •r :- I :- I fold Figure, like first Theme, shortened. \n :— > -\ 1 :- s d :- — • d :- • >^ m, : — — ■ P s, : — 1, ,_ m, : — f, :- PI :- :r d :- '' { - :- d : — : :1 .3 |r :f .m — |s :- -If :- , - It, .— !d d :d'.t |s f ~ fi :ta.l m .f f :1 .8 jr - It, : .[IVB.jf Three. d :d'.t!s :ta.l / fi n d ■- 1- ;« .1 :f .m d* :d'.t|8 :ta.l / i m ;- 1- '.« .f d : — 1 — * Making the fourth Episode. 212 6 f :1 .s |r THE HAYDN FOKM. - |S - If - It, :f .m Coda, made from the 2nd phrase of the \st thetne. d' :— |r' :— d :— |r : — f r d :— |r : — d, :- |r, :- s :s 1 8 :l.t S| :s, |s, :I|-t| d' :- |r' :8' fi d •'- |r :s 10 :s 1 3 :1 .t s, :s, |S| :l,.t, d' ._ ir'' d '" |r d • |r d, : — \h 3 :s |E :l.t d' : — :s, |s, :l,.t d !— |r :s 14 ^ s : 3 1 3 : 1 .t d' : s, :s, |s, :l,.t, d P :s |s :l.t d' :— I— :r s, :— I— : — :- I :- I Descbiptiox " OF Secoxd Strain. (See Analysis, p. 199.) IVa, B. 103 to 113. First theme in principal key, in left hand, ivith guide, like IIa, H to 13. 114 to 128. Second episode, like Hb, in 1st Jt, not 2nd J kev, but in higher octave, followed by figures and guide like the close of TTTr Note. — The Finale contains, in its second part, very little that is not simple Thematic Development of the first pax-t. Let the student obtain a copy, and test the ti-uth of the following description. The figrures give the numbers of the measures, Ia, b, c. I to 7. First phrase of first theme, in 1st J key, with imitation of second phrase in bass. The same inverted, and in principal key. The same in 1st b key, in left hand. 8 to 10. First phrase of second theme " shortened " and treated imitatively. II to 20. Runs with chords, as in TTTr,* and guide, but in another key. 21 to 36. Figures not related to the pre- ceding, but imitated in M. 169 to 174. 37 to 48. Imitation of second episode a step higher. Ha, b. 49 to 76. Second theme a st«p higher. The same in the original key and in the left hand, with guide. The same in the 1st t key. TTTa, b. 77 to 84. First theme, in principal key. 65 to 102. First episode, beginning with repetition of Ib, which is followed by a similar figure extended with transition. Va, b, c, d. 129 to 146. Second theme beginning in 1st ft key, going to principal key, as in rVA. 147 to 149. Short sjinphony, preparing and enhancing by its bright rhythm and its/e the effect of what follows. 150 to 163. First phrase of first theme imitated in lower octave, in left hand, in upper octave, and in 1st 0 key. 164 to 168. Figures forming a giiide. 169 to 174. Eun-Uke figures, as in meas. 25, &c., but in minor mode of key F. 175 to 192. Guide like TU, meas. 11, &c., breaking into run-like figuree and chords like HLb, meas. 13, &c. VIA, b. 193 to 208. First theme complete, fol- lowed by second part of the same f oui times. 209 to 216. Chordal coda. * These numbers refer to the Periods of the first Strain. THE HAYPN FORM. 213 .[Ta.I ^zjzLjXgU^ w^^^^m m^ =y= 3;Sy= ..-.iTrigrTfag ^ ^^^ # g^i=E §^i-^ [IlA.] THE HATDX FORM. 11 * fit A — ?^^^ -^ P- /^r -tsr B=PS^ /^ :=4df: !«=■= i^» THE HAYDN FORM. 215 [ran.] ^^^^^$^^^E$g^^=^=^q^=E ^^^ ^=g lqggip^^=i^B=8tgg:p^p::=gjg+l ff:«*-P: Z^*--", S^ ^^^^^^^^^^ Mi^^ THE HATDX FOBM f^Mf^f^ [IVb.] gA^j:;g^^ ^^k ' . - - rr f- , ^ ^ :, ^«;# ,-g: — f- ^ , W^^~^^i^-f'—r-r M^ F =f^=F-F^bF=^- — L__L_ S^ — ' — == — 1 — ^"-1 — 'i 1 — ' _,_ _^ t«_ ,e — r— "^ ^ Si :— 1 1-^'- • J— r ^L_^_Z»_r^j CZ^ OVEBLAPPING. THE CANON FORM. 217 115e. Overhipping . — It is very common in instrumeutal music to make the end of one phrase or section the beginning' of another. This we have called in "Con- struction Exercises" the "Mock Cadence." Examples of it may be seen in Beethoven's "First Movement," at the beg'imiing^ of Ib, m. 6 ; at the beginning' of UIb, M. 13, ■where the end of the two-fold figTire is the beginning of the three-fold ; and at the beginning of IVb, m. 6, where the end of the second Subject is taken as the be- ginning of the Episode. See also Haydn's "Finale," IVa, m. 1, where the surprise cadence chord which closes the previous Episode is made the opening chord of the second Theme ; IVa, m. 8, where the strong cadence of the second Subject is made to begin s/orzando the first figui-e of the Episode ; IVn, m. 1, where the cadence chord of the last Episode is made the beginning of the shortened first Sub- ject ; and IVb, m. 7, where the cadence of the previous Subject is taken in unison as the beginning of the Coda. In ▼ocal music these " mock cadences " are some- times found. See Becker's " Choral March," p. 175, the Relief HIc, first measure, whore the cadence-tone of the march is made the first tone of the Coda. See also the beginning of UIc, m. 5, in the same Relief. In the style of fugal imitation " overlapping " is carried much further than one tone. See " Flora gave me," p. 142, IIb, m. 1 and 2 ; He, m. 1 ; and Vb, m. 1. See also " In Jewry," p. 149 ; HIa, m. 3 and 4 ; TTTr, m. 6 and 6 ; and Vs. m. 1. 116. The Canon. — This is a piece of music in which a whole Section or Period (not a mere phrase) is given in Fugal Imitation, and written according to Canon or " rule." Thus we may sup- pose that Byrd laid down the " rule " for himself — 1st, that in the piece he is about to compose there shall be three parts ; 2nd, that there shall be one "subject;" 3rd, that the first "answer" shall commence at the Fourth below, and the second at the Octave below; 4th, that the first answer shall be after the interval of one measure, and the second after the interval of two measures, — and that this "rule" or set of rules led him to compose " Non nobis Domine," p. 218. Such a composition would be called " a Canon three [parts] in one [subject] at the Fourth and Octave below." Again, we may suppose that Attwood laid down these rules for himself — 1st, that there shall be four parts (S.C.T.B.); 2nd, that there shall be two subjects, 0. and B. taking the subject, and S. and T. the counter-subject ; 3rd, that the answers shall all be in the Octave below ; 4th, that the answer to each subject shall be after one measure, but that the counter-subject shall enter one pulse after the leading subject, — and that thus he composed " Glory be to the Father," p. 219. This would be called "A Canon four [parts] in two [subjects] at the Octave." 116&. Closed and Open. — Some writers of the seventeenth century were accus- tomed to publish their Canons in essence rather than in full development. They printed the leading subject and named the number of parts ; the reader or sing- er had to find out all the places of entry for himself. Canons thus printed were called " Closed" or Puzzle Canons; while those which were printed in full were called "Open" Canons. 116c. Finite and Perpetual or Infinite.^ Canons in which the parts leave off one by one, or a short coda is provided for tlie close, are called Finite (that is "having an end ") ; those in which provision is made for constant repetition (only the word Fine or the mark /t\ being placed over the chord at which, apart from any consideration of the sense of the words, it is convenient to break off) are called /nfinite In'feineit (that is, not having an end") or Perpetual. "Non nobis," p. 218, is Infinite; "Glory be," p. 219, ia Finite, — the parts leaving off in their turn, and the new tones of the Contralto making the close into a kind of Coda. 116ti. Augmentation and Diminution. — Augmentation means a "lengthening" of the time; Diminution means a " short- ening" of the time. See examples, p. 109. When the answer ia the same a« 218 THE CANON FOEM. the subject except that it is in longer time (generally twice the length) it is said to be " an answer by Augmentation ;" ■when in shorter time (generally half the length) "an answer by Diminution." 116e. Direct and Contrary or Inverted. — Most answers are in similar motion (see above, p. 98) to the subject; these are "direct" answers. But some are in contrary motion; these are "Inverted answers." 116/. Strict and Tonal or Free. — In Canon, just as in Sequence (above, p. 100) the imitation may be one of exact inter- vals (strict) or it may follow the changes of the common scale (tonal or free) . "Non nobis," below, is a Strict Canon ; the (-( makes it so. "Glory be," p. 210, being "at the unison," must necessarily be strict. liejr. Free Parts or Accompaniment.— Some Canons have parts whieli are not concerned in the Canon except to accom- pany it. Thus the well-known hymn- tune called Tallis' Canon has a Canon two in one between T. and S., while the C. and 13. only accompany. They are the " free parts." Some Canons are written with elaborate instrumental accompaniments. Dr. Stainer (Dictionary) quotes one from Schubert's " Song of Minam," and an- other from Beethoven's Fourth Spn- phony, and refers to "The sea upheaved," in Mendelssohn's " Elijah," and to an- other example in Mendelssohn's " 95th Psalm." 116A. Circular Canon. — This is a Canon so constructed as to go through the circle of all the twelve major or minor ke)-s. The subject ends a little step higher than it began, and it always begins again on this higher tone. 116/. Crab-Canon. — This is a Canon walking backwards like a crab, hence called " Canon Cancrizans." The sub- ject in its repetition is taken backwards. Other compositions, as well as Canons, were written in a similar manner, and were said to be imitations by " forward and backward" per rede et retro. See a chant by Havergal in " How to Observe Hai-mony," il. 41. But this and the last- named form of Canon were works of curiosity, not works of art. KEY D. NON NOBIS DOMENE. % Fine. Btbdk. / d :- r :ni f :-.f m :m r : — d : — :s \ Non no - bis s, : — Do 1, - mi- ;t, ne, non d :-.d no t, :t, bis, 1, ; S| sed 1 Non no - bis Do - mi- d : — ne, r non no f :-.f bis m :n \ iNon no • ■ bis Do - mi- ne, non / / I.l :f d' : — d' :ta 1 :-.l 3 : — :r nomi-ne :r tu - m .ni :d 0 s da glo - ri- s :f am, m :- .m r sed sed r : — nomi-ne d :- Tu :s 0 da 1 .1 ;f glo - ri- am, d' :ta no bis. sed nomi-ne Tu - 0 da PI .PI :d no-mme, :1. sed :-.l s : — 3 :f m :- .m r : — d :- Tu - 0 da glo - ri- am. non t,.t,:S| r ; — r :d t, :-.t, 1, :- nomi-ne Tu - 0 da glo - ri- am, S : — :r m .m :d s : — s :f am. sed nomi-ne Tu - 0 da no - bis glo f :-.fl s Do - mi- 1, :t, no - bis .m ^ •- ri- 1 am. [Ta.] TIIR CANON FORM. 219 r I I -^ -^ -I -I— l^^gS GLORY BE TO THE FATHER. KEY F. TiroMAs Attwood. / :d .d |r m :f .s m ,d :s |S :s s d' , , d 1 Olo Glo-ry bo 1- 1 to :t, ly the Fa-ther,and to d :m |f be to :d .d |r .m the :r the :f .s Son, Fa - m .d and d s ) ' 1 Glo-ry be d :- 1- to tlio :t, Fa-ther,and d :m .n \ Qlo - ry be to the/ 1 |t .1 to :s .f the :t, m Ho - d :s ly, :pi, |s .f :m .r Ho - ly |f, :s, d : Ghost ; d ;d 1 : |1, :t, d ) ther, ' to If aiid :b the :r .r to s Son, PI the :d' and :d Son, and It .1 :s .f to the |r :t, to the m :s Ho - ly, d :m| Ho - ly |s .f ;ni .r Ho - ly If, :s, Ghost. d Ghost. d \ Fa - tlier, and to the Son, and to the Ho - ly Ghost. ^3* P hr ^^ ->z^3v^== -1 -J ■d J^Z ^ iT- tJ 1 2rv-J= J-J- r I^T^tP V-f-- fer r 1 =:r= — ^— ::L- ^-t ^ -J. 220 THE FUGUE FORM. 1164. Catch. — A kind of Canon, in ■which an emphatically expressed word in one part "catches" the previously em- phasized ■word in another part, and con- nects itself ■with that pre^noas ■word, so as to make some unexpected and ludicrous sense ■n-hich is not contained in the ■words themselves when they are read straight on. ".-Ui, how Sophia," in one part, is caught up by "Go, fetch the Indians" in another, and the Listener hears "A house on fltre, go fetch the engines." The word "Catch " was also used for any Bound or a Canon, because the singers catch up the music one after the other. 116?. Round. — This is a Canon at the Unison or Octave, in which the new voice does not enter until the conclusion of a Section. " In England," says Horsley, " the term Canon is applied only to those pieces where the reply is heard soon after the subject commences, while they are called Rounds in which the reply is not heard until after the first perfect cadence." 117. The Fugue Form. — Tte Fugal Imitations of the Madrigal style (see pp. 105 and 140) had definite beginnings, but indefinite or irregular endings. The Fugal Imitations of the Canon style have definite endings as well as definite beginnings, and as soon as the end is reached they return to the beginning again ; no new matter is introduced. The Fugal Imitations of the regular Fugue have definite beginnings and endings which are liable only to slight changes. But when the end is reached there is no return to the beginning as in a Canon. Instead of this a light theme is introduced, called the Counter- subject, which (with additional counterpoint if necessary) is carried on until the other parts have completed their imitation. The principal theme is called the Subject. The first reply, generally in the first sharp key, is called the Answer. The passage in which subject and answer are taken up by the different voices, and the counter-subject is employed to accom- pany the imitations as they draw to a conclusion, is generally called an Exposition. The Germans call it a Carrying -through (Durch- fiihrung). We propose to call it an Unfolding. Symphonies and Episodes (see above, pp. 118 and 119) are freely used to give relief and variety between the " Unfoldings." Variety is also obtained by the different order in which the voices enter, and by the different distances at which they come in. When the voices come in very closely one after the other, expressing a rising interest in the subject, such a passage is called a Stretto (or closing-up). After the first "unfolding" of the subject, the Fugue sometimes wanders into related keys for the sake of variety. For the same reason it sometimes introduces imitation by contrary motion, by widening, by lengthening, &c. (See pp. 109 and 110). And it allows not only complete but fractional imitations of the subject. Unity is secured in a Fugue, not only by the constant re- currence of the subject in its various presentations or unfoldings, THE FUGUE FORM. ANALrsES. 221 but also by the use of the organ-point, or pediil, sometimes with reminiscences of the theme, at the close. The idea of a Fugue is, that the mind has been seized by a certain thought whioh it unfolds and develops in a great variety of ways, at first calmly, and then with constantly increasing excitement till it reaches its clima.x in the close. Hence it is that full cadences are avoided throughout the Fugue, and are seldom found, except at the con- clusion of some principal Unfolding, or Episode. There is no time for pause in a Fugue. It is one golden thread of thought beaten out into a glowmg passion. 117i. Examples. — The following ex- ample from Albrechtsberger will sliow the bare outlines of a Fiisue. The dis- tinction of type in the Tonic Sol-fa copy will assist the learner. Everything which is not subject or answer is printed in italics. The italics, therefore, include the counter-subject and various symphonies or episodes. The Fugue divides itself in- to three unfoldings, with the symphonies or episodes attached to each. The, first unfolding is in the order of B. after three measures T. entering upon the last pulse of the theme, after three measures C, after three measures S. The counter- subject having the rhythm TAA-AAtefe TAATAi TAA f ollows the subjcct in thcBass against the second pulse of the answer, again follows the answer in the Tenor against the second pulse of the subject, and again follows the subject in the Con- tralto against the second pulse of the answer. In the Bass and Tenor many other tones are added to rill up the accom- paniment. The second unfolding enters, without any intervening symphony' or episode, on the last tone of the first im- folding, It enters a fourth lower in the first sharp key, in the following order — B. with the answer, after only two mea- sures T. with the subject, after three measirres as before (or as the first tone of the subject is shortened, after three mea- sures and a pulse) S, and then again after two measures C. The counter-subject finds its old place of entry (that is, on the second pulse) first above the Bass answer, next above the Tenor subject, next (two pulses later) above the Contralto answer. This Contralto answer has what we may call a companion in the Bass which runs a third, or more sti'ictly a tenth, below it. In the course of this unfolding many other tones are used besides those of the counter-subject. This second unfolding is followed by a little musical play on the counter-subject, which as it introduces no new theme, we call a symphony, not an episode. This symphony has a ca- dence in the first sharp minor. The third unfolding is a Stretto, for the T. follows the B. after only onemea.sure. The C. follows the T. after two measures, and the 8. follows after one measxire. The old counter-subject is at first crowded out by the sti'etto, appearing only in the Tenor. But it finds ample compen-sation in the fugal style in which it is introduced by the symphony, moving right on to the pedal or organ-point, with which the Fugue closes. The following analyses of two Fugues by Handel should be com- pared vnth this, and the points of differ- ence noted. They wiU sliew how a great master seized the main idea of a Fugue — the development of one theme — and used it so far as it would answer his present purposes. Handel's "And with His stripes," No. 25 of the "Messiah," p. 226, below, has four unfoldings. The order of the first is — S., after two measures C, with a slight alteration of the'fu-st interval, after three measures and a half T., and after three and a half measui'es B. The counter-sub- ject enters above the fourth pulse of the C. answer, and immediately the C. has fin- ished its answer, it echoes the counter- subject with some conti-ary motion in the relative minor of the original key. Again the counter-subject enters above the fourth piilse of the T. subject, and before that subject is completed, the S. echoes the counter-subject a Foirrth higher. Once more the counter-subject enters on the fourth pulse of the B. answer, and is instantly re-echoed as before by the C. Various other bits of counterpoint are added to fill up the harmony, or to com- plete a phrase. The second unfolding begins with the original answer in S, after three mea- siu-es another Eesponse (which is neither subject nor answer) by T. in the second flat key, an Octave and a Step lower; after three measm-es the original subject in the B, after five measures and a half the response by C. in the fu'st sharp key (major), a step below the original subject. The apparent reason for the delay in the last answer is to allow time for placing the ear well in the new key, lest the t-one on "stripes" should soimd too hard. The counter-subject enters under the fourth pulse of the fii'st answer ; again, over the fourth pulse of the second aniswer ; agaia, over the foui-th pulse of the B. subject; and once more, under the fourth pulao 222 ANALYSIS OE fUGUES. SUBJECT AND AiS'SWBB. of the major C response, itself in major. There are t^vo very short episodes or gTiides {see p. 119;", one leading cleaily into the first sharp key, before the U entry, and the other leading to a cadence on that key to prepare the ear for the new unfolding. The third unfolding is " incomplete." It begins with a response to the original theme given by the S. in the relative major a third above, preparing fur the original subject, again by the S., after four measures, which is answered by the B. after two measures. The C. and T. do not take any part in this un- folding. The counter-subject enters al- ways as before, on the fourth pulse of subject, answer, or response, but in this unfolding it is more freely imitated in Pugal style than it yet has been. After this B. answer, there is a pretty episode with imitative phrases (containing no imitations of subject or coimter-subject) in the original key for three measures and a half. This introduces the fourth unfolding with the answer in S., and after two measures the subject in B. The counter- subject enters as before, and then there is i simple cadence on the Minor Domin- int. Handel wished to leave the mind in expectancy, so preparing it for the next chorus. Thus the excitement of the stretto as well as the conclusiveness of the pedal woiild have been foreign to his purpose. The "Amen Chorus" of Handel's "Messiah" well expresses the harmon- ious but multitudinous utterance of satis- faction and joy. In its first unfolding the B. opens with a subject of foiu- measiires. After five measm-es T. gives the answer, after five measures C. introduces subject, and then after five more measures S. gives the answer. Nothing can be clearer and simpler than this annoimcement. The counter -subject enters always on the sixth piilse of subject or answer, and in its emphatic tones simply moves down the scale. In doing this, it is sometimes tossed about from part to part, and other counter- point is added to it. After a clear cadence the violins play a symphony of ten mea- sures, making a cadence in the original key. This being treated as a "mock cadence," the second unfolding begins. The B. announces the subject with full counterpoint above it, in wldch there are hints of the counter-subject. After an imitative episode, in which the in.stru- ments act as "guide" to the new key, the B. again speaks, delivering the answer with full coimterpoint as before. After a full cadence, or rather on the stroke of that cadence, there commences a remark- able symphony in Canon. The Canon is four in one at the Sve below after 1 piilse, and at the 4th below after 2, and extending to 7 pulses in length. Its tiieme is in sym- phony with the subject to the extent of 3 pulses TAA -AATAi TAATAi on which its entries are made. It is a Finite Canon, having a coda contrived for it. On the stroke of its cadence, however, the same Canon begins again a fifth lower, and con- cludes wiOi a more lengthened coda. This is like the response of a multitude, but a very orderly multitude, to the powerful B. announcements which have just been made, and it prepares for the third quiet imfolding of the principal subject in stretto. This is announced by S., is in- stantly re-echoed by C, and after three pulses by T. This unfolding is imperfect, for there is no strict answer, and for re- lief after the Canon the B. is silent until a little counterpoint is wanted at the close. After this third unfolding there occurs a canonical symphony reaching to the close. It constantly repeats in a great variety of ways, more or less of the theme of the Canon, which is also the opening of the subject. It employs inversion or contrary motion, sometimes in one part, sometimes in all. There is less appear- ance of order than in the Canon, and the sense of multitude becoHies almost tumultuous. Just before the closing coda there is a fine organ-point or pediil on the Dominant moving to the Tonic. John Sebastian Bach lemains the greatest master of the Fug^ue style, and those who wish to pursue these studies should make themselves thoroughly acquainted with his works. 117c. Subject and Answer. — "We follow common usage in taking the word " Sub- ject" for the principal theme of a Fugue. As the pitch at which a theme is given forth is an important element of its effect, it win be well to confine the name " Sub- ject" to that theme when it appears at its original pitch or its Octave. The first reply winch is made to the subject at any interval but the Octave, we call the "Answer," and we propose to confine this name to any repetition of the same reply at the same pitch. The answer is gen- erally at the Fifth above or the Fourth below. Otlier imitations of the subject which are not its first answer, we propose to call "Responses," and to name the pitch (above or below the theme) at which they start. This is the plan we have adopted in the above analysis. ind. Strict and Tonal. — A Strict, or as it is sometimes called, Eeal Fugue, makes the answer exactly the same as the sub- ject, only in a different key. A Tonal Fugue allows the answer to vary from the subject in order to retain the " tonality ' or key. Thus — KEY D. (Id :in If :s would be answered by- DOUISLE FUGUE. PfiELUDE. 223 I 18 :1 It :d' and not by— , _. ., , j|s --t Id' :r' \\^^:^m=az^ Because the last phrase would really be a repetition of the first in another key, which would make a " strict " answer. 117e. License. — Any freedom from ex- act imitation of interval is allowed if it does not offend, but pleases the ear. Thus Albrechtsberger mentions as licens- es the shortening of the first tone in the S. answer of the second unfolding, and the use of / instead of fe in the T. and S. of the third unfolding', in the example below. 117/. DouUe Fugue. — Occasionally a Fugue has two subjects. The second subject in this case generally enters after the first subject, but before the answer is heard. In some cases, however the first subject is fully unfolded, then the second subject separately, and afterwards the two subjects together as above. Some Fugues have, in this way, three or more subjects when other contrivances are used. Marx recommends for the study of Double Fugi.ips the " Coufiteor unum baptisma " in Seb. Bach's " High Mass" (B Minor), and Seb. Bach's Fug-ue in G Minor, (Forty-eight Pi-eludes and Fugues) and for the study of Triple Fugues the " Kyrie " of Bach's Mass in G Major. 117(7. Prelude, Toccatn, d-c. — Introduc- tory pieces of an extended character are called Pi-eludes. Bach has such Preludes to most of his Fugues. Czemy disting- uishes two peculiarities of tlie Prelude ; first, that its chords must continually change key, so keeping up "a perpetual excitation ;" second, that a certain figure is adopted which passes from part to part, giving to the Prelude " a certain unity of motion," which distinguishes it from every other Form. A Toccata (Tokaa'taa) is a piece commonly used as a Prelude, in which scope is given to try the touch and skill of the performer. An Etudl (Aitoodai) or Study develops the skill of the performer in some particular direc- tion, but has no other object. It is not used as a Prelude. FUGUE FROM ALBRECHTSBERGER. KEY F. 1st Unfolbing. [Co unter-sub in ital.'] Answer. Subject. • d :— ti S| 1| t, S d PI d — t, \ S| I fe :r n fe s I - ..s/ PI .r \ - ./•//:/( .^1 «i h «i Ai -Sl d .t\ , c.t. — t s 1 * ] li .-t, df I - .^,/ PI , r d r f d \r ^l f s r/' .t I s ./ j h ''S\ ./i 2nd Unfold rsG. d' .^ -.1 m r d r n ) f.F. l\ \n r t, d s - .l,s id .u 1 \n :- f — n ^s, ( d :— ti Si 1. t| d d's t 224 THE FUGUE FOKM li :t, - .f/t:r .« f.Bb- "t| - .d,t{ 8 d S| d .ti (^):d 5i : — d >r '.m ./ m .r :d - ./ :n ,r li :t, r \s\ fi :s, I \t f '- - .r,d:t\ .l\ S| t, f r F.t. Symphony , using Counter-sub. d* J ^\d .1 :- .s,f ^ 's^ - .d\t\l - ,n ,r:d n :- .fe^ n .d^ h t\ re - ■«./! r ' - .t,l' 8 .n 3 ao Unfolding, Stretto. fe — n — — - .^1 S\ ~ — re m — s — f : — — n. — d — ti S| li : s — d — t, S| n fe s fZ' d t\ 'h «i m\ Symphony, using Counter -subject. s r' - .d\t d^ .1 - ,t\,l\ t, .r m - .d 8 - ,t d\ d h f :r 1| :t, - .t,l:s ./ /i 'S\ t -.- .d^ r :s .VI - «l./|5«l .Wl n d ,s\ m d, I d /i r .d Ftdal. - .8,/ PI ,r m — r — d — r «i - .h,ii d — u d — t, — d - ."^/ 5 - •/ n — s\ — — — — — '/| — THE FUGUE FORM. 225 [lA.]* [IB.] [To.] =;; — r — -- ==r; ^ n=5'- [Id.] [Ha.] [Hb] r I I . m J ^ I I s 1 I [mp.] E^E, -J- 't^m^m 0 1 N I =i ' See note, bottom of p. 234. 226 THE FUGUE FORM AND WITir HIS STRIPES. Handel. Tlie Subject, Answer, Eesponse, ani OounU'r-suhject are in ordinary type. Everything else is in italics. NOTR. [lA.j KEY A^. Lah is F. M. 88 f I sei - Hi [Ib.] Eb.t. - .r h ^ sei n' .r' |di_^ - Ill [Ic] - ;Mi If' I ''' n Id f.Ab. 1 tl .se m 1 — '.r - J\\t\ .l\ '.ha\.He\ l\.m\ d h 1 : (J .r \m ^~ I .t, f Isei n .r I d .t| - iiT^ .n li.seilli_ t, Id 1 .s fie f .n r .de|r .m r m r n ',/' - .X I 1 1 .I'l .1 [In.] E^.t - h^ 1, h,d :- .1 t — \, \r .d t\ - jn n' .r' !f sei — / ild' .t II. se 1 .se tl .n :1 .s |f .n 1 :m \1~ d -.df! \r r .de [IlA] Id' /| 1 - .t k' '- .« \i .t, - II I - \m n .r Id .t| d.f.Db. THE FUGUE FORM. [ir...] t — \m 1 1 rlr,l |di V se — se \l r n l.t, n .r Id .t| - 11 227 li .se, - .t Ab.t 1 [lie] ' iri.r l\.t\ \d - .r,d t\ - .se\\l\ .t\ A .r dif - .fi,f\pi J m .ba se. 1. t \m I 1 tn Id f M^ sei n .r Id .t, li.se, r li .n Id.] 1 .S |f .n :r .de r .n / i- Eb.t. \d n 1 : 1/ :« I - 1-^ V Hi t, d de \r \n Z--JL r .d Ui V s — 1 — f - .s n ./ \r He.] - .PI 1 / ..? \d .^1 r' .«" t 1 d^ \- t n 1 d - . f r .d - .n,r "^ — 1 S\ — 1 — «l V — .n : i n' .r' Id'.t t 1 .se fAb- [IVb.] s se \l — m - 1- :r n 1 r n .r |d .t| :l|.sei In Id f sei - Hi :t, d ,t\ '.d .r \m — Ada^ jio. |r 1 l\.se\:l\.t\\d -.ty l\ — 1- j PI :- .r \d .r m f I- \ d '.-.U\h -.*l /l 1- n se\ n\ - I- :- THE FDGUE FORM. 229 ; = 88. [lA] r"- ^^. ±& ^^-^g^^H^^i^ --j^-, ii=m =^^^^^ ^^ J_^^ ^ ^ J. ^ [Ha] [Hb] =rgf^[=^E ^^^^^m 530 THE FDGUE FORM. [He] i ^ .K,A _U. [Hk] [iha] «g5=U-C-J^=: W > ^ .*-i. J I iiE^s^=3 T.i-W THK KUGDE FORM. 231 [uib] I [nic] z^r f r f :^=3t 1=Ee [niD] ^^7"CT^^"^=^^ :*:s: :?s : :rttjs===: ^^ J i J -g-g n f^:=z:z=:^[!!L ESffH -r-r-r^i^z :|==:fe!;z^fcf£it= ^ b=t(t [IVa] I I i m-^-—ts- m Pf= W^^=^ ■tz^ =(*==tzf l^=Fr= Bsi Ife 2—^ :|=; ^ta^^ [IVb] ^^ =r::t'-^-r~,^=^ F — p- "^ u< Adagio. :^::i^ S^ r- -is== 1 ^ -— n I r g^- 2.32 COXNKCTED PIECES. THE FULL SONATA FORM. 118. Services. Masses, and Suites.— Pieces of music are Bometimcs connected together by the purpose to which they are applied without making their mutual relationship and effect the principal object of consideration. Nevertheless, in these " sets " of musical pieces there is generally some relationship of key or keys, and often some unity of theme and similarity or contrast of style which give connectedness to the whole. Thus a Church of England " Service" is a series of musical pieces applied to the requirements of public worship. A " Morn- ing Service" would contain "settings" for the Canticles, and " settings" of the Kyrie, Sanctus, and Gloria in Exeelsis. In the same way there are " Evening Services," " Burial Services," &c. The word " Mass " is used to describe the communion service of the Church of Eome. The musical portion of the Mass includes " settings " of the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei, and sometimes an Offertory, and Benedictus. Secular music has also its chain of pieces. The Suite (sweet) was a set of dances or other pieces so arranged as to follow well one after the other. It was at first "applied" to dancing purposes; buc afterwards, breaking loose from that application, it sought only after the best musical effect. It was this chain of pieces — this Suite — which gi'adually led to the invention of the Haydn Form, and the Full Sonata Form. 119. The Full Sonata Form.— This is a Form of " pure," unapplied music — music unshackled, and free to develop the Forms which are most beautiful. It consists of a chain of Movements, each having its own distinct Form. Thus the First Movement is generally in the Haydn Form (above, p. 198), sometimes in the Vai'iation Form (above, p. 18(3); but whatever the Form, it should be Allegro (see above, p. 33) in its style. The second Movement is called the Slow Movement, or Andante (see above, p. 33). This may be similar in Form to the first, but must be different in character for the sake of contrast. For the same reason it is generally in a different but related key. A Movement is some- times inserted after this which follows the Form of the Minuet and Belief or Trio, or (since Beethoven invented it) the Form of the Scherzo fSkcrtzoa) which is of a light fantastic style, often like a Minuet taken at triple pace. It is usually in the key of the First Movement. The last Movement is necessarily in the same key as the first, but livelier and lighter in its manner. It may be in the Haydn Form, or in the Variation Form, but it is generally in the Eondo Form. Sonatas sometimes have a short Movement at the beginning which is called Introduction. This Fill] Sonata Form is also the Form of most string quartets, and of orchestral s^^mphonies. CONCERTO. FANTASIA. OVERTCTEE. EECITATIVE. 233 119J. Examples. — The best examples of this Form ai'e to be found in the Sonatas and Symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. 119c. Concerto. — The Concerto (koan- cAai'rtoa) is a large work for a single leading instrument (or for several leading instruments) "concerted" with other in- stmments which play the accompaniment Concertos are generally in a modified Full Sonata Form. il9d. Fantasia. — The Fantasia (Fan- tazee'a) is a string of Movements, in tlie arrangement of which Fancy rules more than Form. Capriccio (Kapr'ecfchio) and Pot-PouiTi (Poa-Pooree) are names for minor Forms of the same kind. A Fan- tasia may commence, as Marx says, "with an Adagio in the form of an Air, proceed to an Allegro, assume the Form of a Rondo, Fugue, Variation, &c., and close with a repetition of the first movement or a special finale. But no general rule is possible." " A true composer," says Mr. Banister, " always keeps his fancy under control, regulating it by his knowledge ; and when most unfettered, and least for- mal, still exhibits design — unity of pur- pose. Mozart's Fantasia in 0 Minor is an example. Form implying design, not formality, is essential to a true work of art." 120. Extended Dramatic Forms. — A Cantata, an Oratorio, or an Opera consists of a series of musical pieces, in different Forms, intended to tell a storj, or to illustrate an action. The Cantata may be sacred or secular, and by means of song, duet, trio, and chorus, generally with accompaniment, it develops some story. The Oratorio is a more extended Cantata, employing the highest Forms of music, and requiring the most skilful executants. It is founded on some part of Scriptnre history, and seeks by every appliance of music to expound and illus- trate the narrative. Opera is a chain of musical compositions " ajiplied " to the acting and sceneiy of the stage. It does music's part, along with the arts of acting and painting, in setting forth the story. It develops the art of instrumental accompaniment both to action and singing, the art of recitative or musical speech, and the curious art of interlaced conversations in song, as well as the arts of solo and chorus singing in the greatest perfection. But as the Oratorio presents to us the greatest Forms in music without the distraction of action and scenery, Oratorio must be regarded a.s the highest development which music has ever reached. 1206. Overture. — An Overture is an extended piece of instrumental music, meant as an introduction to an Opera or Oratorio. It generally introduces the most telling themes which are about to appear in the coui'se of the work. Its object is to " whet the appetite " for the music which is to come. The older Over- tures contained several movements much in the Form of the Full Sonata. Many more modem ones are in a single Move- ment, with perhaps a sliort Introduction, and an Episode in the middle. These often assume the Haydn Form, some- times that of the Fugue. 120c. Pecilatioe. — Recitative (Rai'sita- leev) is a Rort of musical declamation. It is an attempt to give to the singing voice some of that freedom in changes of key and rhythm which belong to the speaking voice. Inflection it cannot give. But perhaps on this very account there is all the more of wild dignity and grandeur about this style of declaiming. It is not necessarily in any particular key or mea- sure. Cliords are sti'uck at intervals to sustain the voice. Sometimes the Itecita- tive breaks into the style of an Air, and obeys more or less the rules of key and measure, being also more fully accom- panied. It is then called a Recitative Arioso ( Aarioa' sna) . The Recitative ia genei-ally employed to introduce some song or chorus, by declaiming some fact or sentiment which would make it better understood. 234 PLAN FOR PAfiSIKG. 121. The Parsing of Complete Forms. — A performer about to siu^ or play a new piece of music, and even a listener -wlio desires' to hear it intelligently, should first try to secure for himself a clear impression of the main features by which the tune is distinguished. He will then be able to do better justice to the music, and to enjoy it more fully. It is important to form the habit of doing this in a systematic manner, in order not to waste time in thinking what to look at first, what second, and so on. This business-like way of " looking into " a piece of music will place the student at great advantage. It will not be necessary to analyse minutely every one of the Structural Relations, but it will be necessary to distinguish the most important of them from the less important, to grasp the leading ideas of the piece. The process of doing this is called the Parsing of Musical Form. At first this parsing should bo written out in the form of exercises ; after which it will become an habitual, an almost instinctive exercise. In order then to parse a new tune effectively we propose to nut tb it the following questions : — 1. What is the Form .P Note. — A careful study of the above pars. lOrj to 120 will easily enable the student to answer this question. It is reccinmended that the larger Forms should be taken piecemeal for the purposes of parsing; a single Movement, and in some cases a lengthened stiain being taken as a whole. It is thus that we have analysed the two pails of Haydn's Finale, p. 199 above. 2. What are the Key, the Measure, and the Style ? Note. — The " key " (see above, p. 8S) is so essential a thing in music, and so much depends upon it, that the particular key of the piece before us should be the first thing hxed on the mind. A glance at its Measure (see Effects of Measure, above, pp. 26 to 30) and at its Style (see above, pp. 33, 65, and 115) will give the student a good preliminary idea of the meaning of the piece. 3. What are the Rhythmical Division, and the Cadence Design ? Note. — The general Rhythmical Structure of a piece is either Two-fold or Three- fold. See above, p. 123. The Cadence Class to which a piece belongs is 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th, as described on pp. 123, 124. Canon and Fugue, however, cannot be classified under this head. 4. What ia the Structural Plan. Note. — To answer this question the student should scud to his examiner a copy of the music, marked in the manner which is explained above, pp. 87, 88, and iUustrated by the markings on pp. 80 to 85, 100 to 104, and 142, 149, 156, 175, 183, 189, 194, 200, 207, 223, 226 above. In cases of overlapping our marks should be placed exactly over the beginning of Period and Section. The Structtu-al Divisions of aFugue*maybe marked by the comm'.ncement of each Unfolding. The Roman ] may be taken to indicate the first Unfolding, II the second, and so on. Ia, IIa, &c., may be used to mark the Unfoldings themselves. Ib, IIb, ice, or Ic, He, &c., may be placed at the commencement of each Entry, Symphony, Episode, or Coda. The student must be reminded that in order to mark the Structural Divisions of a piece, he must fii'st obtain the faculty of seeing and hearing a cadence, and of distinoruishing t)ie more important cadences from the less important. See above, pp. m to no. • Or Cauou. THE COMPLETE FOKMS. 235 E What are the Transitions or Modulations most worthy cf note ? Note.— Tlie most important are generally those which hold the most importaut pi iCe in the rhythmical structme of the tune. See above, p. 90. 6. What are the principal Responses .'' Note. — The manner of answering tliis question is shewn at p. 99. It will not be necessary in these parsing exercises to notice everything that can be seen or heard, but only the most important things — tliose which hold the most important places, or other- wise produce the most important effects. The headings Str., Pds., Sec, and Har. should still be retained as a means of securing system in the student's mode of observing. 7. What are the most interesting devices ? Note.— By devices wo understand Fugal Imitations (above, p. 105), Sequence (pp. 105 to lOS), and Organ-point or Pedal, Recmriug Bass, and Double Countei-point (above, p. 108), with any other musical contrivances whicli are of sutfieient interest to De noticed. It will not be necessary to analyse them fully as at \m. 105 and 108, but only to name them and show the Period and Section where they occur. Against this No. 7 in many tunes the answer will be "None." 8. What is the Emotional Development and Point ? Note. — ^The manner of answering this question will be seen above, at pp. Ill to 114. For all the simpler Forms these questions will be sufficient. For larger Forms the following two will be requiied. 9. What are the most interesting cases of Accompaniment, Addition, and Insertion ? Note. — A study of pp. 114 to 120 above, with a careful examination of all the examples, will easily enable the student to answer this question in the case of other tunes. But he will have to listen well, and throw his mind into his ears. 10. What portions of the piece consist of Thematic Exposition and Development, and what portions consist of Symphony and Episode ? Note.— These subjects will be understood by a careful study of pp. 108 to 111 above, compared with pp. 119 and 188, 198, 199. It will not be necessary in these parsing exercises, to trace out each theme so sy.stematic!illy as on p. Ill, but simply to say that Thematic Development occupies such and such measures in Ia, such and such measures in Ib, &c., and that Episode or Symphony occupies such and such measures of Ia, Ib, &c., &c. This will be sufficient to shew that the mainsprings of life and power in music have been observed. (^mx^t^ of iExerci^c^ in J^usical dForm. Note.— The following Com-ses of Exercises will test the apprehension of the student of this book. If he is able to go through the A Course with ease, and perfectly, he need not touch the B Course. But it would be a great advantage for him to go through both Courses ; it would make his apprehension clearer and his knowledge more familiar. If he has experienced difficulty in going through any one stage of the A Course, he should, on no account whatever, go on to the next until he has first gone over the previous Stage again with a new set of exercises supplied by the B Com-se. The Tonic Sol-fa College undertakes (for holders of tlie Intermediate Certificate) to correct exercises in this subject by post, but recommends pupils to avail themselves, in preference, of personal teaching whenever they can secure it. For particulars of the exercises for the various coiuses set by the College apply to tue Secretary, 27, FinsbuiT Square. London, E.G. 236 COUBSES OF EXEECISES. For the FirH Stage A the student will require "Standard Course" and "Eeporter" Nos. 151, 143, 534.— B "Standard Course" and "Reporter" Nos. 152, 534, 147, 327, 807. For the Second Stage A the student will require " Standard Course,'' " Reporter" 274, and String Band Music, No. 1.— B " Standard Course " and String Band Music, No. 3. For the Third Stage A the student will require "Standard Course," "Reporter" Nos. 707, 147, 143, 534, 274, 464, 635, 342, 683 ; " Orchestral Scores," Nos. 4 and 6 ; " Modem Part-songs," No. 5; "Pianoforte Music," Nos. 5,6.— B "Standard Course," "Reporter" Nos. 147, 143, 155, 534, 162, 121, 719, 640, 483; "Orchestral Scores," Nos. 7 and 11; " Pianoforte Music," Nos. 4, 7, 8. FIRST STAGE. First Set. Rhythmical Proportion. Key aivd Mode. " Musical Theory " Book III, pp. 77 to 91. -Study A CouBSB. — Analyse for Rhythmical Proportion (as p. 88) " Standard Course" Ex. 97, 136; "Jackson," Add. Ex., p. 2; '' Father," p. 34 ; "Nearer," p. 34. Ana- lyse for Key and Mode (as p. 91), " Stand- ard Course" Ex. 133, 135, 142; "How beautiful," Add. Ex., p. 12 ; " Lord, in this," p. 33; "Rise, my soul," p. 33; " Father," p. 34 ; " Nearer," p. 34 ; " "Where the gay," p. 65. B Course. — Analyse for Rhythmical Proportion (as p. 88) " Standard Course " Ex. 134, 135, 142 ; " Hope wiU," Add. Ex., p. 12; " Rise, my soul," p. 33. Ana- lyse for Key and Mode (as p. 91), " Stand- ard Course " Ex. 134, 136, 245 ; first verse of "Morning Prayer," Add. Ex., p. 79; first verse of " If I had," p. 45 ; first verse of "Away," p. 42; "Loud the storm," p. 93. Secosd Set. Cadences. — Study " Musical Theory," Book III, pp. 91 to 96. B Course. — Analyse for Cadences (as p. 96) " Chants," Rep. 152, Nos. 97. 98, 100, 101, 103, 108, 130, 131 ; and in Rep. 534, " Crown Him," " Onward, Christian," "Eternal Father;" and in Rep. 147, " Jerusalem," " O come and mourn." A Course. — Analyse for Cadences (as p. 96), "Oiants," Rep. 151, Nos. 25, 35, 14, 9, 56, 2, 6, 8, 20, 12, 30, 95, 29, 60, 55, 19 ; and in Rep. 143, " Lamb of God," " Lowly and solemn," " O Lord, how happy," "Eternal light ;" and in Add. Ex., p. 33, "Lord, in this," and "Rise, my soul." Third Set. Cadences. — Study, as above. A Course. — Analyse for Cadences (as p. 96), "Chants," Rep. 151, Nos. 73, 22, 63, 13, 18, 5, 48, 44, 68, 80, 51, 40, 11, 47, 17, 72 ; " Father," Add. Ex., p. 34 ; "Nearer," p. 34 ; "Jackson," p. 2 ; "If I had," p. 45, first and third verses. B Course. — Analyse for Cadences (n« p. 96) "Chants," Rep. 152, Nos. 99, 111, 116, 137, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144; "Hope will," Add. Ex., p. 12 ; " Going home," p. 2 ; " O the joy," p. 57 ; first verse of " The Shepherd's Lament," p. 88. Fourth Set. Rhythmic and Theoiy," Book III, pp. 96, 97. A Course. — Analyse for Rhythmic Imitation (p. 96, par. 766), "Standard Cuui-se" Ex. 251; "Hope wUl," Add. Ex., p. 12. Analyse for Similar and Contrary Motion (par. 76c), " Standard Course" Ex. 136; "Lowly and solemn," Rep. 143 ; point out the replies by Similar itotion in the different parts of "Father," Add. Ex., p. 34, sc. 1. Analyse for Gt-ncrally Constrast<;d Motion (par. 76i' ':f'.r'|d' :t id' :- '^^^^^^ i^^^iE^^=, tt -r The general rule of equal division will lead him to place the break in the first Section just after the second s ; but the break in the second Section must be placed exceptionally, because of the shaping of the melody. The "equal division" would be after r' : but r' could not be put into the first Phrase because it so evidently leads down to d' and belongs to it. Thus for purely musical phrasing we should place the break before r' making the pulse TAAsefe instead of taatai. But a slui' must be performed glidingly and forbids a break.* We must therefore place the break before the /' . In giving Expression it would be natui-al to take the tii'st Phrase of each Section crescendo, except where the sense of the words may dictate otherwise. The /' of the second Section should be delivered as the culmination of the crescendo ; and, if it is necessary to breathe before it, the " break " should be made,notat the beginning of the/i-pulse, but at the end of the m'-pulse. In the following cases we shall confine om-selves exclusively to the musical Phrasing, and shall afterwards return to consider the differences of break which may be im- posed by the words. In the tunes "St. Fulbert" p. 128, "Holyrood" p. 130, "Sigillus" p. 130, and " Grasmere " p. 131, the rule of equal division will naturally place the break at the beginning of the fifth pulse of each Section. In view of future illusti-ations it would be well for the student to mark in his book, as above, the places of the musical break. In "St. Agnes" p. 129, the rhj'thm is irregular, and the Sections cannot be equally divided. We have therefore to listen and decide whether the Section divides itself into two shapes of Phrase or Figures, and where. We should thus probably agree to place the break at the beginning of the sixth pulse of I a and 11 a , and at the end of the third pulse of Ib and IIb. In Heidelberg " p. 131, the rule of equal division places the break at the beginning of the fifth pulse of Ia, Ib, IIh, but if we place it there in IIa we break the natui'al resolution of the little step, /going to m, and this we feel should be avoided if possible. We may therefore plsicn tlie break at the end of the third or the fifth pulses. If at the end of the third pulse, we should break the continuity of an ascending phrase, which replies to a descending one at the beginning of Ib. Let us tlierefore place the break at the end of the fifth pulse. In "Denbigh" p. 129, the general rule of equality of division places the break of phrase at the beginning of the fifth pulse in Ia, IIa, and IId. But, if we place it there in Ib we shall separate fe from its natural resolution in s. Let us therefore place it at the end of the fifth pulse. In " Gibbons " p. 132, the rule of equal division places the break at the end of the fourth pulse in Ia, Ib, and IIa. But if we i)lace it there in IIb we shall fail to show the two falling figiu-es {s to r and VI to d) which are indicated by the shaping of the Section. Let us therefore place the musical break at the beginning of the fourth pulse. In " Zurich " p. 132, there is in every Section a reason which inclines us to place the break at the beginning of the fourth pulse instead of at the end. In Ia and IIa it is desirable to keep unbroken the ascending fi.gure, s, to d. In Ib and IIb it is desirable not to separate / from its proper resolution. In III a a great down- ward leap naturally suggests a break of phrase, and the break being placed at the beginning of the fourth pulse, instead of the end makes the d glide into the I, and gives it effective emphasis. In IIIb the steady downward motion from m to /|. and in IVa the upward motion from d to J are best expressed by taking tlie break at the beginning of the weak pulse ; if it were.,taken just before the strong pulse, it would make the division too marked, and lessen the sense of unity in the whole Section. In IVb for a reason given on p. 251, we should emphasize the first d by a slight break before it. In " HaiTington " p. 129, the rule of equal division places the break at the beginning of the seventh pulse in Ia and IIa. But in Ib and Hb the downward leaps after a rather conclusive figui'e sug- gest a break of phrase at the end of the lourth pulse. 127. Shape of Phrases. — The kind o£ motion which is given to a Phrase — that is, its ascending or descending, its moving stepwise or by leaps, or its simple continuity of tone — •In instrumental music, however, slurs are often carelessly printed, and 'overiapping" (p. 2171 «lso reauires exceptional treatment. 246 SHAPES OF PHRASE AJS'D THEIK EXPRESSION. is called its shape. And there are certain principles of our nature, whicli lead us to give difEerent forms of expression to dLSereut shapes of phrases. Thus — 1st, Our love of life and vigour, our dislike to monotony, compels us to give to any long-held or repeated tone the form of the Crescendo, and sometimes that of the Swell,—* 2nd, Our natural pleasure in difficulties to be conquered, the inspiration we feel in effort and struggle, lead us to sing or play ascending phrases with a quickening of force and speed, — 3rd, Our sense of relief in efforts accomplished and of rest in the quiet which follows, incline us to sing descending passages with a slackening of force and speed, — 4th, The natural excitement we feel at the prospect of exertion dictates the Expression we give to the leap. An upward leap, even on to a weak pulse is almost unavoidably emphasized, and it is necessarily so when taken on to a strong pulse. The very distance of interval combined with heightened pitch of themselves mark it out to the ear, so that much additional force is rarely needed. The downward leap on to a weak pulse implies not effort or energy, but fall, and is naturally unemphasized. But the downward leap to a strong pulse — a pulse already destined by the measure to be strong — comes with a sense of weight and power, which is made stronger by the leap. Ex- ceptional circumstances will vary all these forms of Expression, but they hold good in all music as general rules. 1276. 7Hus«ra«ion.— The ever-increasing self-assertion of a long holding tone or a repeated tone has been likened to the stedfast rock amid the moving waves. The crescendo and diminuendo effects have reminded us of the quickening and slackening of our pulses in effort and relaxation. See " Standard Course," p. 99. Mons. Lussy beautifully says " to mount is to fight physically and morally — to raise one's self to a higher stage against natuial tendencies. The more steep the road, the more strength -we mu.st put out; and the more strength we put out, ti.e more rapidly our pulse beats, and the more quickly we move, but also the sooner are we exhausted. To descend physically and moraUy is to follow one's natural tendencies — we feel a disposition to go fast, but necessity to hold back." 127c. Examples. — The following Period affords an example of each of these rules. 1st. If we wish to throw any feeling into the repeated tone d, we must sing it crescendo ; the first d being accented * New Ex. in lightly indeed, but not loud, the third d beii^ much more forcefully delivered, and the intermediate d being made an emo- tional "pressure" tone steadily swelling from that which precedes into that which follows. 2nd. The ascending phra.se from i:s ,- .d|r ,in ,r:l|,- ,rjf,-,t,:r,-,S||d ,m ,l:3,-,8|r'4',iTi:l ,8 ^|r/ii,r:t,-,l 128e. The Unexpected in Harmony. — It is obvious that "distinguishing-tones," whether they be_/%, ta, se, de, re ma, or la, and whether they are introduced to pro- mote Transition or a Chromatic resolution, do disturb the vis inertioe — the immobility of the mind. They are undoubtedly the unexpected, and this unexpectedness is the more marked when similar phrases have occurred just before without these distinguishing tones. A tone of retvrn- inij ti-ansition, or a tone contradicting a previous chromatic tone, should also be emphasized. It is easily seen that in the following examples from M. Lussy la, /«, ma, and de should be empha-sized, by explosive utterance when they are on an accent, and by " pressure " when nol THK DISTINGTJISniNG OF SECTIONS. 249 accented. In several of these cases we I slight slaokening of speed or rallenUtndo. are tempted to increase the emphatic Ste also " Sec, the conquering," p. 104' delivery of these exceptional tones by a | se, IIa, m. 4; and t, IIb, m. 3. ' ' KEY C. .8 Id' Meyerbeer. "Africaine ' .r' If .m' :r' .d' It .d' :1 .d' |3 : — |.s Id' :- .r' If .n' :r' .d' It .d' :1a .d' |a ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ KEY At , ,RossiNi. ''G. Tell.' Id :— :r,t|,S||d :— :r,m,fis :— :ia,s,fe|8 :— :s Mf : — .iii,s,n|r :— :d,l,d|r :— :nia,r^e[r :— :re • 3 • it==^E^ip=^Pii^^^3i 129. Distinction of Sections. — The Sections are often distinguished structurally by one being placed higher or lower than another. In most, though not in all cases, the movement to a higher pitch suggests louder delivery, and the change to a lower pitch suggests a humbler and softer delivery. Other modes of distinction will occur to the student as the cases arise. Among the most important things for him to remember is this that those Sections which are musically most related to each other are those which should be distinguished ; that is, their relationship should be shown by the expression. sing it louder; and to distingtjish the first Section from the last we could take the first more or less piano, and the last more or less forte. Under some cii'cum- stances it might be better to make the first Section /orie and the \&st piano. 129i. Examples. — In the following ex- ample the middle Section dwells more upon the high range of the voice, and has a higher cadence than the others. This fact combined with the bold style of its melody would naturally lead us to KEY D. :s Id' :— It :1 la :— |1 :t.d'lni -.m |f :r Id :— | — |(n -.s Id' ;— |1 :t.d'[t :s |1 ;fe |s :- |1 Id' :- it :1 :- |1 :t,d'|m Id :- I- 250 EXAMPLE OF SECTIOUAL DISTINCTION. In "St. Fulbert" p. 128, the distinction of Sections is easUy made when we notice that Ib has a rising melodic shape, wliich is, on the whole, higher than Ia with its two falling phrases, that Hb imitatea Ib, though irregularly, a thii-d lower, and that Ha has falling Phrases. This analysis of the structure of the tune, shows at once that In should be louder than Ia and shoiild be crescendo from s up to d', that Hb should be softer than Ie because it is lower, and crescendo from r to /, that the leap in Ia from s downward to weak-pulse d should leave the accents as they stand, that the leap in Ia from r upward to weak-pulse I should give I the pressure form, that the leaps downward in IIa from d^ to strong-pulse s and up- ward from d to strong-pulse /should give both to the s and to the / a marked explosive accent. In " Harrington " p. 129, as soon as we see that the Section IIa imitates the waving of Ia (each having a falling followed by a ri-sing Phrase) but that IIa is lower, we determine to perform ILx more softly than Ia. As soon as we study the B Sections, we notice that Ib is like a "continuous" tone with the exciting variations of the unexpected /«, and the quick ornament m.l, and the whole Section should therefore be delivered crescendo. "We also see that Ha answers Ib by re- asserting the original key at a higher pitch, and should therefore open forte, — its close being firm though soft. This expression-plan stiits the Sections also consecutively, for the forte close of Ib sets off the piano opening of IIa, and the hirmble crescendo in the second Phrase of IIa prepares for the brilliant point of the tune in Hb, so that there seems a steady crescendo on the tones r f I and d'. The student will not forget the "return- ing" / at the beginning of IIa or the unexpected I at the end, which comes with its touch of hope looking out of sadness, where the ear had expected nothing but m r. In " St. Agnes" p. 129, Ib is lower than Hb and therefore softer. Ha has a falling melodic shape from / down to S| and is therefore diminuendo in order to be which, it must begin forte. Hb opens with a rapid rising shape which should be cre-t- cendo. The student will notice how the law of repeated tones makes the third m at the beginning of Ia and the third s, at the beginning of Ib assume the pressure form, which is the more important in the last case in view of the upward leap and the explo.sive tone on m. The more marked the repetition of these tones has been made to the ear, the more "unexpected" wUl m be felt at the beginning of Ha and I, d at the beginning of Hb. It sounds weU to make the m a pressure tone, the I, an explosive or stac- cato tone, and the d a pressure tone. In " Denbigh" p. 129, Ib begins like Ia but proceeds in a more excited manner, — 1st, by the unexpected fe; 2nd, by the high t which properly becomes m, — so Ib is louder than Ia, and Hb which imitates the cadence of Ib a fifth lower is softer. The two falling Phrases in Ha and that at the beginning of Hb easily suggest the diminuendo form, but in order to secure this, their commencing tones must have "pressure." The / must especially be marked because it shows returning tran- sition and emphatically contradicts thefe. In " Holyi-ood " p. 130, la is higher and naturally louder than Ia. In Ha there are two rising Phrases each with a crescendo, the second is the more marked because its three-tone rhythm is un- expected, and Hb opens with a descending Phrase diminuendo. In " Sigillus " p. 130, Ib is higher and brighter than Ia, both Ha and Hb have falling melodic shapes. To distinguish them, Ha which begins higher should begin louder than Hb. In " Heidelberg " p. 131, the first Phrase of Ib repeats the last Phra-se of Ia and repetition means reinforcement, there- fore let Ib be louder. But Ha must be louder still , because it is so much higher. And Hb which repeats Ha in a lower key is naturally softer. In " Grasmere " p. 1.^1 Ia has a rising or crescendo, and Ib a falling or dim- inuendo shape. But the general force of both should be somewhat soft, so as to allow a stronger delivery of them in the repetition at the close. Hb imitates Ib a fourth higher, and so should be brighter. HIa and b have their own characteristie forms. TTTa is crescendo and diminuendo ; EXFKESSrON OF REPLY AND SEQUKNCE. 261 ma is diminuendo, the I being only an interruption of the diminuendo. The I should have the pressure shape in order ihat the r may be delivered the more explosively, bein^ a faU upon a strong pulse. This diminuendo beginning higher than that just preceding should also begin with a louder pressiu-e tone. In II a the second / is unexpected and should be emphasized. The same may be said in a less degree of the second d' in IV,\. And in IVb the unexpected / should be care- fully marked by voice or instrument. In " Gibbons," p. 132, Ia and IIa begin crescendo, but Ha continues with a very marked because unexpected, / and closes with a diminup.ndo against Ia's second crescendo. TLa opens with a diminuendo beginning Forte to set off against the crescendo at the opening of Ib. In "Zurich," Ia and b should be softly delivered in order that their reinforcement in Ha and a may appear more vigorous. IUa has two ascending phrases, the second lower and softer than the first. 1 1 IR descends with a diminuendo from mto t,. TV A ascends with crescendo from d to /. IVb imitates UIb but %vith a marked and unexpected diilerence on the d, which should therefore be emphasized with pressure. In "Lavington," p. 133, to distinguish the second Period from the first, let it be louder. The -.d' \t in IHa and Uie second m in IHb are ime.xpected and should be emphasized. In "St. John," p. 134, IIa contrasts with Ia by its beginning with a crescendo starting higher but not continuing. IIb conti-asts with Ib by starting a fourth lower with its similar motion, and closing quietly instead of rising with the un- expected /«. HIa and e form together a magnificent crescendo from d to ;•'. In order to make it so the singer must begin very softly, and in taking breath before the thii-d d the second « and the second d' he must take care to do so very rapidly and .quietly so that the crescendo may seem to be uninterrupted. In "Pilgrimage," p. 134, the most notable thing is the promptitude with which the unexpected s at the begimiing of IHa should be delivered. The same may be said of the unexpected •' g at the begimiing of IIa in "Aspiration" p. 135. In " Middleton" p. 136, a solo singer> not a choralist, might introduce a dim- inuendo Portamento at the end of Ha. In " Holstein," p. 136, the first Period should be soft ia order that the second may express a rising emotion. 1 1 1 a should close very brilliantly because of the great relief which the unexpected fe brings to the mind. The diminuendo of HIb v/ill thus commence with great power. 130. Melodic and Rhythmic Reply.— The manner in which these " replies " manifest the unity of a piece has been shewn above, pp. 96, 97. Expression can do much in drawing the attention of the hearer to such important relations. The general rule is that a reply should be different in expression from the Phrase it answers. The mode of difference is sometimes suggested by the rules for the distinction of Sections just given, and sometimes by the rules for shape of Phrase.* 1306. Examples. — In all the examples of Rhythmic Tmitatinn (above, p. 96) the rules for distinguishing Sections, already distinguish these imitations. In the ex- amples of Repetition, increase of force is iiatui-ally suggested ; in those of Similar' motion, we natui'aUy increase the force if the figm-e ascends, and dunitiish the force if it descends. In the cases of con- trary or contrasted motion which are quoted, the ascending ci-escendo and the descending diminuendo are in their own nature sufficiently distinct. 131. Sequence.— Each "limb" of a Sequence (above, pp. 10.5 to 108) has a melodic figure, which naturally takes the Expression belonging to its " shape." Each " limb " also rises or falls from that which precedes it, and this enables us to " dis- tinguish " one limb from the other by Expression. A rising Sequence naturally suggests increased excitement and greater force of utterance at eveiy step, and a falling Sequence • New Ex. in St. Co., p. 100. 252 EXPEKSSIOX OF PABTS DICTATED BY MOST IMPORTAKT. diminished excitement, and diminishing force of utterance. Thus while each figure has its own proper Expression, it differs from the others in the loudness or softness with which it begins. 1316. Examples.— In "Good-bye, Sweet- heart" (above, p. 60j the rising Sequence naturally shews increased stren^h of feeling, and suggests that the second limb should begin louder than the first. This does not prevent each limb having its explosive tone on its first " bye," and its diminuendo, and possibly rallen- tando to the second " bye." " Christ- church," on the same page has a faUing Sequence, each limb of which begins forte and continues diminuendo, but the second Umb begins less forte than the first. We may siiy that the first begins ff and ends p, while the other begins / and ends pp. There is a rising Sequence in "Preparation," p. 134, at HIa, and a faUing Sequence in "Aspiration," p. 135, at IHa. Both follow these rules of ex- pression. There is at IHa in " Middle- ton," p. 136, a repetition, the closing tone of which reminds us of a faUing Sequence. This tone / naturally calls for a soft but firm Expression. In "Zinzen- dorf," p. 137. IIb is a Sequence, a third lower, toII.4^,andIlB should be sung loud enough to let lis be soft. In " Every Valley," p. 1.56, the long ascending figures should begin softly, in order that each limb may commence a little louder than the last. Other examples may be studied in Haydn's " Finale," p. 207, and Beet- hoven's " First Movement," p. 200. 132. Relation of Parts. — ^Vhen two parts move together by similar motion it is generally in thirds, sixths, or tenths, and we feel that their companionship is best shown by an equal degree of force. When two parts move in contrary motion, the part which is the more important of the two, gives its expression to the other, even though it be in contradiction to the general rule of rising and falling phrases, above, p. 249. Note that the Soprano or melody is generally " more important " than the Bass, and the Bass than either of the inner parts. When one part moves obliquely to another which has a continued or repeated tone, this " holding-tone " takes its expression from the part which moves obliquely, even when it descends, and so contradicts the general rule of " sustained tones," above, p. 246. Exceptions may arise — 1st, when a part holds different relations with two of the other parts {e.g., similar to one and contrary to the other) in which case it follows the one which is " more important ;" and 2nd, when the holding or repeated tone is the leading feature of the music, in which case it receives its natural expression, overruling even a descending oblique accompaniment. 1326. Examples.— Jn "Melcombe," p. 80, Ia, first phrase, and Ib, first phrase, the two outer parts move downwards in similar motion, and should have the same slightly diminuendo expression. The Tenor in Ia has contrary motion to these parts ; but as it is a subordinate inner part, it must take a diminuendo instead of its natural crescendo expression. In Ha, first and second Phrasrs, the outer parts have contrary motion. It will easily be found by trj-ing the experiment that it sounds better for the Bii&j to yield to the " greater importance " of the Soprano, and assume the crescendo form in eacli Phrase instead of the natural diminuendo. The Tenor in IIa has similar motion with the Bass and contrary motion to the Soprano ; it yields to the " more im- portant." In " Crofts," p. 81, IIIa, second phrase, there is again contrary motion between Soprano and Bass ; and sorely against its will the Bass must yield to the diminuendo of the Soprano. In "Innocents," p. 8-% Ia, the Bass holding- tone, which would naturally be cresr^/uic EXPRESSION OF THEME IN FUGUE. 253 to the end, is made diminuendo after the second measure in submission to the more important Soprano. It is the same with the repeated s in the Tenor of Ib. In the well-known tune "Benediction," quoted above, p. 245, the repeated tone d, being in the most important part, and liaving- a characteristic eamesbness about it, retains its own crescendo even thoug'h the Bass should move downward, as it commonly docs. 133. Fugal Imitation. — The spirit and meaning of Fugal Imitation has been shewn above, pp. 141, 140, and 105. This "spirit and meaning" is best brought out by Expression thus. 1st, Let the theme be announced, not always loudly, but always very distinctly and firmly. 2nd, As long as the Theme is heard in the music, let everything hut the theme be delivered softly, — each " voice " knowing exactly when its part in the theme finishes, and falling back immediately into a humble and sub- ordinate place. 3rd, Let the theme and its several Replies take the form of Expression which belongs to theii- shape and to their rising or falling in pitch one after the other.* 1336. Examples. — Thus in "Flora gave me," p. 142, following the analysis, pp. 140, 141, the first downward theme is an- nounced in Duet very clearly and in g-ood tune, and each successive entry of the theme, whether by similar or contrary motion, must be equally marked and firm. The theme does not extend f m-ther than the word "gave;" all the rest, there- fore, shoxild be subdued. The theme being a descending one, and its replies in the upper parts also descending, the ascending imitations in C, B., and 2nd S., must give way to the diminuendo form which is dictated by the theme. The sjTicopated entries in the fourth measure should be given with a strong and unani- mous explosive tone. The second theme at Ib enters and is answered in Duet with unanimous rhythm and good tune. As it ascends always in the leading part it should have even in the Tenor the crescendo form. The imitation of the first theme in IIa is taken diminuendo in deference to the leading part, till the Contralto enters, and becoming itself the leading part, dictates a crescendo to the falling Tenor. All other voices should be hushed when, in IIb, the 1st and 2nd S. enters vrith a new theme. This new theme takes the form of a three-fold faUing sequence, and when the Tenor almost alone has announced it in He, the two Sopranos again take it up in another three-fold falling Sequence which falls lower than the last. According to the natural ride of sequences, IIb would begin with brightness and force, each imitation becoming more soft, more sub- dued, more tender ; and EEC would begin in a similar manner, only' descending to greater softness. This, we think, is the true rendering, for love is a dreamy, sub- duing emotion, and the sjmcopated Tenor supports this idea. These two Sequences would even bear a slight rallentando. If the composer had wished us to express a rising excitement of passion, he would have written — Id.d :n Ir ,r :f \m .m :s &c. i^sii^ :&c. We have retained, however, the p and / of the modem editors although we think them mistaken. At Va and b the chief thing to be noticed is that these faUing imitations should have very marked en- tries and then die away, so as to allow the other entries to be well heard. The same remark applies to VIa and b, VIb being lower should be softer than VXa, till we come to the cadence. The same principles apply to the imita- tions of a Fugue. In Albrechtsberger, above, p. 223, we have printed the sub- ordinate parts in italics. If Madrigals and Fugues were performed with a due obsei-vanoe of subordination of parts, keeping everything soft, but the theme and the cadence, the audience would see and enjoy the music ten times more than they do at present. 134. Development of Themes.— The pleasure arising from the development of Theme (above, pp. 110, 111) is greatly en- hanced when the performer employs the artifices of Expression • See new examples and exercises in St. Co., p. 100 254 KXPKESSION OF ACCOMPANIMENT, ETC. to make the theme, in each step of its development, distinctly Leard. This is chiefly done by subduing the parts which do not contain the theme, and by giving to each development the expression proper to its shape, and to its relative pitch. This point is of great importance, as will be seen above, pp. 244, 247. In the development of theme there is something of what Professor Bain calls " the emotion of Pursuit-and-Plot interest." Expression may therefore well exhibit the alternations of hope and fear, of excitement and depression, which are natural to those who are watching some fast-approaching end. 135. Accompaniment, Addition, and Insertion. — The general rule for Accompaniment (above, pp. 114 to 119) is that it should be subdued as long as the principal Air is going on ; but that it should come out in full force in all those little symphonies and episodes in which it has to claim the attention of the ear alone. In dances, however, the Accompaniment, especially when it strikes the strong accent, becomes a leading part, and should be expressed accordingly. Introductions and Uodas should be louder than mere a-ccompaniment, but should take their expres- Bion from their own natural shape and character. in56. Examples. — Tlie examples re- I enable the student to see the reason of ferred to at pp. 116, 118, and 120, will I these assertions. 136. Imitative Sounds. — Singing or playing which i.^ meant to imitate the soft sighing of wind, the clear rippling of water, the distant bells, the tramp of soldiers coming nearer and going past, the sobbing of a child, or any other natural sounds, may legitimately employ extraordmary means, such as change of " resonance," portamento, or inflection, and the other means of expression in extreme degrees. The great object in such cases is not music but imitation.* 137. P.apid Passages. — Eapid runs and figures, like those in " Every Valle3%" p. 1.56 ; the Rondo, p. 194 ; the First Move- ment, p. 200 ; and the Finale, p. 207, should be delivered — 1st, with great clearness and distinctness; and 2nd, with great steadiness of time. Blurred and irregular runs can have no beauty ; but when each sparkles with its own brightness there is Variety, and when all follow in the same exact pulsation of rhythm there is Unity. The clear enunciation combined with the orderly beat make the run and the figure beautiful.t 138. Unison Passages. — Passages in which all the pai-ta join in one are meant to have the efi:ect of massive unity and force. They should be delivered in perfect tune, in perfect time, and with conscious strength. See Haydn's Finale, p. 207, meas 6 to 15, and Beethoven's First Movement, p. 200, meas. 1 to b.t '■ 3t. Co., pp. 100, 101. + St. Co., p. 102. t St. Co., p. im EXPKESSION OF CADENCE AND DISSONANCE. 255 139. Cadences. — The importance of Cadences both in bring- ing the mind to a satisfactoiy close and in contrasting one Section Avith another is well understood by those who have studied pp. 92 to 96. It follows from this that they should be delivered always with firmness. Even when the melodic phrase is a falling one, if the Cadence is on a strong pulse, the last two tones should be delivered as a pressure tone falling into an explosive tone. But when the Cadence is on a weak or medium pulse, we best show the character of this Cadence by delivering the two tones diminuendo, the first taking the explosive form, and the second being soft, though fi^-m, and quickly cut off. When the first tone in these cadences is very long it has a languishing effect, and that is aided by the swell form of expression. 1396. Examples. — lu analysing the ex- pression of tunes (pp. 248 and 249, above) no reference was made to tlie Cadences. The student will now go through each case, and mark the expression of the Cadences. Examples of the weak-pulse Cadence may be found in "Harrington," p. 129; "Pilgrimage," p. 134; and "Hol- stein," p. 136 ; and of the medium-pulse Cadence in "Heidelberg" and " Gras- mere," p. 131. Tasteful singers are exact in " tapering off " these Cadences.* 140. Dissonances. — A Dissonance (see p. 92) is an " unex- pected " thing, and should therefore be emphasized. But there iire degrees of unexpectedness. Thus a " prepared " Dissonance (like 0. d against S. r, and S. f against T. s at the beginning of '• Sharon," p. 84) is not quite unexpected because the dissoiiating tone has just been heard. The great thing to be shown by expression in the conduct of such a dissonance is the smooth connectedness of the Preparation Percussion and Eesolution, the three tones taking the swell form. But the " resisting " tone (r in the one case, s in the other) must be delivered explosively. A dissonance which is not close or " primary " (like T. d against S. r in " Reay," p. 85, IIb, or S. d' against C. r in IVa) is not so strongly heard — does not produce the same degree of surprise, and, therefore, was not intended to be emphasized so much as a primary dissonance. An unprepared dissonance (like right-hand 1 against left-hand t| in Haydn's " Finale," p. 207, IIa, meas. 9, or right-hand f against left-hand n in the same, Ia, meas. 12, or 0. f against S. s in " In Jewry," p. 151, IVb, meas. 2) is more startling and is meant to be more emphasized than that which ia prepared. On a weak pulse it should have the pressure tone, leading into its resolution, and on a strong pulse it should have the explosive tone. In all cases the resisting tone should be accented as though it Icnew it had something to resist. Mere passing dissonances (passing from the tone above to the tone below, like S. n against B. f | in " Bach," p. 83, Ib, or C. r against B. Hi, IIIb) on a weak pulse or the weak part of a pulse are intended to be unnoticed, and should not be emphasized. Perhaps an ascending Dissonance, even of this kind, should bo somewhat more accented. + • St. Oo., r- 103 t New Ex. in St. Co., p. 104. 256 CLASSIFICATION. CAUSES OF EMOTIOX. 141. Organ-point. — The Tonic or Dominant in an Organ- point pai'takes of the character of " holding " or " repeated " tones, and should be delivered always with a steady, and often with a crescendo or swell effect. See d in Haydn's " Finale,'' p. 207, Ia, nieas. 3 to 9, and s in Ills, meas. 9 to 16. 142. Development of Emotion and Point. — In studying Emotional " Expression " and Point, above, pp. Ill to 114, we used the word Expression for that utterance of feeling which the compose!' gives, and which is found in the structure of the music itself, and in making the analyses we merely listened to the music and wrote down the impression it made upon our minds. We have now to take the word Expression in the Perfoi-iner's sense, and to consider what more can be done by means of the Performer's Expression to set forth the Composer' s Design. And to this end, it will not be enough for us to listen, to feel, and to record. We must also know " how " and " why " the effects are produced. AYe shall thus be able to take up a tune, and form an estimate — 1st, Of its general character and point ; and 2nd, Of the particular parts which best promote its design. And then we shall know how to give prominence to the effective parts of a tune, and to pass lightly over the non-effective. In guiding the student to these studies we shall confine our attention to Hymn-tunes and other elementary forms, — not only because these are in weekly — daily use, and, therefore, most important, but also because they present good examples of general principles which are applicable to all music. 1426. Use of Classification. — Sir John HerscheU says, "The discovery of some important point of community, in sub- BtaJaces which are various, is what Plato called seeing the one in the many — the di?- covei-y of a class." The value of classi- fication is well understood by students of other subjects as well as Music. A tune we take to be a selection from the elements of Time, Tune, and Expression, or a G-roup of musieal qualities. By classify- ing such of these Groups as we have to deal with, we shall be able — 1) to under- stand each new Group more rapidly and easily, because a lai'ge portion of it will be recognised at a glance as already studied and classified, instead of having to begin afresh with every fresh Group ; 2) to seize at once the new points de- manding attention in each new Group, because we have not to stop and analyse the old portion of the Group ; 3) to remember better these Groups of musical effects, and to compare them one with another, because we have already given to each one its class and its name ; 4) to pain, by systematic practice, a quicker insight into the style in which such a Group of tones should be sung ; and 5) to adapt with greater certainty and con- fidence music so grouped to fitting words. This power of quickly estimating the powers of a tune and placing it in a "class" is, therefore, of great value to the Precentor, the Conductor, and the Performer, and will add to the enjoy- ment of the Listener. 142<;. Structural Causes of Emotional Effect in a Composition. —Nearly all the following principles of Emotional Effect have already been learnt by the Student and are familiar to his mind. 1) That Emotional Effects arise princi- pally from the felt relations of the tones of the scale, modified by height of Pitch and rate of Speed (see above, pp. 17 to 20) and that the character of a tune may be largely judged by the "mental effect" of the tone which predominates in it. 2) That the proper effect of a tone is strengthened by the composer when he places it on the strong or medium accent, or on the "unexpected" accent called Syncopation, — when he makes it of greater length than the other tones, — TONE-roWER. EMOTIONAL CLASS, 257 when he approaches it by an upwai-d leap, even thoug-h it bo on to a weak accent, or a doxvmvard leap on to a strong accent, — wlien he repeats it,— when ho makes it the last tone of a cadence, — when it alters some provioiia tone, or is otherwise unexpected, — and, if we may touch on Harmony, when he uses it in its own chord. 3) That Modulation and Transition produce certain effects described above, pp. 48, M, 57, to G2, which are brousrht out by emphasizing' their distingTaishiug tones and their new modal relation. See p. 41. 4) That certain effects of Ilarmony and of chromatic resolution, to be afterwards studied, ca.n be developed by emphasizing tiie tones which distingaiish them. 5) That the general tendency of any ascending Plirase is to excite, and that of a descending Phrase is to depress. G) That the tendency of Phrases moving stepwise is to produce a quieter and less characteristic effect thau those which move by leaps. Such Phrases move more smoothly, and gener.ally also more quickly. 7) That the tendency of Contrasted mo- tion (whether in another part of the har- mony, or in a following Phrase of the melody) is to set off the character of the Phrase contrasted while weakening its power, — and that the tendency of Similar motion is simply to strengthen and sup- port the effect of that which is imitated. Mr. Ruskin says, "\Vhile conti'asts dis- play things, it is unity and sympathy which employ them." 8) That the tendency of two-pulse and four-pulse measure is to make a tune Bold and Strong; of three-pulse raeasiu-e, to make it Soft and Heavy ; of quick six- pulse measure, to make it both Bold and Brilliant. See above, pp. 26 to 30. 9) That the manner in which the "finer" rhythms (above, p. 36) are in- troduced helps to promote or modify the mental effect — the introduction of more rapid motion generally adding liveliness to the feeling. 10) That the tendency of a quick rate of movement is to make a tune Lively, and that of a slow rate of movement to make it more Serious. 142ii. Analysis of Tone-power. — As among all these causes of emotional effect the principal one is the predom- inance of any particular tone of the scale, it becomes important to obtain the faculty of quickly seeing in a tune which tone predominates. A few exercises in analysing for "Powers of tones" will soon awaken this faculty. In these exer- cises we confine ourselves to the melody, partly because we have not yet reached the study of Harmony, and partly be- cause in aU ordinaiy cases the melody alone is capable of deciding its own character. We take no noti?:e of tones on a weak pulse unless they are repeated tones, or approached by an upward leap, or on weak-pulse cadence. And we give one mark to a tone for each of the follow- ing qualities— 1) having strong or medium accent, or s5Ticopated ; 2) lengthened ; 3^ approached by upward leap, or by downward leap on to a strong accent ; 4) repeated ; 5) a cadence tone ; 6) an altered or imexpected tone. Thus some tones obtain several marks, but these marks are found scarcely to exaggerate the increased effect of such tones. In the tune " Grasmcre," p. 131, the process of analysis would be this. The student has the paper by his side with the seven tones and room for marks against each. To d accented, repeated, and continued, he gives 3 marks; m accented and leap, 2; s leap though imaccentcd, 1; d accented leap lengthened, 3; ( accented and ca- dential, 2 ; s, acoeuted, 1 ; r accented, 1 ; / leap, 1 ; / accented, repeated, length- ened, 3 ; and so on. Such an analysis of this tune gives the foUowiiigr i-^sult in "Power of Tones"— (2 25, m 9,/ll,/- 10, si, t 7. Note that even cadence transi- tions are translated mentally into thfi "better method," and that bridge-toiiea are reckoned to belong to the previous key. 142e. Emotional Glass. — In seeldng for the " general character " of a tune, or the emotional class to which it belongs, the student will bear in mind the ten causes of emotional effect, and will see how they work in the tune before him. Let us take for example " Grasmere," p. 131. Taking the principles 1 and 2, he finds that cl and m are the prevailing tones, with sufficient help from s weU set off by/. This at once stamps the time with the character of strength. Prin- ciple 3 leads him to see that tJie tune is brigli toned by a first sharp transition. Pi-inciple 4 he cannot apply for want of the Harmony. Principles 5, 6, 7, ho does not see to be specially called into play. Principle 8 reminds him that the time has a bold measure. Principle 9 tells liim that its boldness is scarcely broken by division of pulses. Principle 10 leads him to observe that the four-pulse mea- sure, taken in connection with the char- acter of the tune, suggests a quick and lively movement. What, then, is the "general character" — the emotional class of this tune ? Undoubtedly it is Bold AND Spirited. An analysis of ".St. John" and "Pilgrimage," p. 134, and "Holstein," p. 136, will lead to similar results. "Holyrood," p. 130, should be Bold and Spirited, but the composer has made the last line contradict the spirit of the rest. " Lavington," p. 133 (subjected to the same analysis, and simg either 258 EMOTIONAL CLASS. CLASSIFICATION. slowly or quickly) cannot be made either Cheerful or Prayerful. It is Bold and Spirited. "Innocents," p. 83, is Bold and Spirited, but its stepwise motion (Principle 6) both in the Air and in the parts, lessens the Bold effect, and makes it approach the Cheerful class. " Mijller," p. 82, has d m s ^eatly predominating'. Its stepwise melody tends to lessen this Boldness, but the leaping Bass more than counterbalances this etfect. In studying tunes of the last class we come to some Uke " Zurich," p. 132, and " Croft," p. 81, which are so harmonized (the chords changing at nearly every pulse) that they cannot well be sung quickly. They both have a bold leaping Bass. Such tunes are suitable to the ex- pression of Grand ideas, and should be delivered in a slow, siistained, and digni- fied manner. Obviously to a different class belong such tunes as "Bach," p. 83. Piinciples 1, 2 lead us to a great predominance of the strong tones, and Principle 3 shows us the first sharp Transition corresponding with them in effect. But it shows also the short modulation to the Relative Minor weakening the boldness and touching the feelings. And Principle 9 reminds us of the playful, pleasant taatai. Then we notice how emphatic the bright r is made, and we see that by its modulation, by its light rhythm, and by its emphatic r, an otherwise "bold and spirited" tune is made one of cheerfol emotion. " Gib- bons," p. 132, when sung quickly, is a tune of similar character, having also a predominating r. " Preparation," p. 1.34, would be made "Spirited and Bold" by the predominance of s, m, and d, but its plaj^ul rhythm (taa -aatai and taatai) and its sequence bring it into the class of "cheerful emotion." "St. Pulbert" is a tune difficult to class by the melody alone. The " powers " of its tones are a 8, m 7,/i, d3, 12, t 3. r 2. There is not enough d to malce it Bold, and the predominance of s prevents its being sad. Sung slowly it would be very heavy, but sung quickly it makes a bright, cheerful tune. A different kind of " cheerfulness " (which may, however, go by the same name) is given to those tunes in which the Calm, Meditative m predominates— if they are not too slowly sung. Thus is it with " St. Agnes," p. 129. First sharp Transition promotes this effect in quickly moving m-tunes, els in "Denbigh," p. 129, "Heidelberg," p. 131, and "Aspiration," p. 135. "Harrington," p. 129, is a time which the predominance of d would have made " Bold," but which, by its light six-pulse measure and its quick taatai is made a bright and " cheerful " tune A new class is introduced to us by such a tune as " Sharon," p, 84. Its " tone- power" stands thus— / 6, .' 5, d G, t 4, r 3, lS,m3. The predominance of the " deso- late or awe-inspiring tone " gives it its character. Even by singing it quickly we cannot make it bright and cheerful. No other tone disputes the predominance with /, and the constantly changing chords require it to move somewhat ' slowly. We must place it in the Solesin class. " SigQlus," p. 130, is not like the last, a /-tune, it is rather a m-r-tune, and TO with r are very " calmly solemn " when simg slowly. Differing again from the last, this time might be made "Cheerful" by singing it quickly. The sameness of the cadences forbids this, and suggests that the composer's intention was quiet solemnity. "Evelyn," p. 80, is a tune with a great power of r in it, and with a minor mode cadence ; its second and third lines compel us to sing it slowly, and .to place it among the Solemn rather than the Cheerfid tunes. Other r-times Uke "Gibbons," p. 132, and other m-tunes like "Denbigh," p. 129, "Heidelberg," p. 131, and "Aspiration," p. 13.5, we have sup- j posed to be sung quickly, and have ^ classed them under " Cheerful" emotion. Stepwise movement (Principle 6), not counterbalanced by any Bold movement of the Bass, along with the non-pre- dominance of emotional tones, help to ] form another class, which we may call Neutral AND Variable. Such tunes are " Melcombe," p. 80 ; " Reay," p. 83 ; " Middleton," p. 136 ; and "Zinzendorf," p. 137. Tiones of this class are very much affected by speed of movement, and lend themselves thus to varying feel- ings, although they do not express an^ feeling very decidedly. Such an examination would lead us to classify tunes as — 1st, Bold and Spirited. Chiefly d m s tunes, with leaps, in four-pulse measure, and moving quickly. 2nd, Grand. Like the last, but mov- ing slowly, having .all the elements of boldness delivered in a sustained manner. As a Bold and Spirited tune is almost necessarily sung in four-pulse measure, I so the slowly-moving Grand tune is ' almost necessarily sung without the mediirm accent — that is, in two-pulse measure. Three-pulse measure, "fine" rhythms, and stepwise motion are un- friendly to both these classes. 3rd, Cheerfltl. Chiefly r-tunes, with "finer rhythms," even though d m s predominate, in four-pulse or six-pulse measure, and moving quickly. Also quickly-moving m-tunes. The predom- inance of / is unfriendly to cheerfulness although the tune moves quickly. EXPRESSION PLAN'S. 259 4'A, Soi.RM>f. Ch'.-fly/, or r, or m tunes, not havin^the fiiKT rhythms, and in three or four-pulse measure, moving' slowly. Tunes can be changed from Cheerful to Solemn, or the contrary, by altering- the speed of movement, unless there is some decided predominance of / or I to fix the Solemnity, as in " Sharon," p. 84, or a light six-pulse measiu'e, or the introduc- tion of quick rhythms to fix the Cheer- fulness, as in " Harrington," p. 129, and "Bach," p. 83. 5th, Neutral and Variable. Cliietly stepwise tune.s, without ,gi-eat predom- inance of any tones but il. Thus it will be seen that the predom- inance of the Bold and Strong tones of the scale give out two classes of tunes according as they are sung quickly or slowly ; that the Emotional tones of the scale also give out two classes of tunes, which are in like manner governed chiefly by .speed of movement ; and that the neutral or less-impassioned tunes are those in which neither the Bold nor the Emotional tones of the scale have any great predominance one over the other. 143. Expression Plan. — After studying the emotional class of a tune, as suggested above, and tlie development of Emotion and Point, as above, pp. Ill to 114, it will be a useful exercise for the student to compel himself to draw up a systematic plan of the expression which he deems proper to such a tune. In doing this he will be especially careful to develop the characteristic tones and Phrases of the tune, or those which are most Congenial (that is, of the same nature) with its general spirit. It is not everything that ca^i be expressed that should be expressed. The general principles of Expression already studied have shown the student what can be done; he has now to exercise his judgment, and decide what it is best to do. 1435. Examples. — " Innocents," pp. 83 and 113, Emotional Class — Bold and Spirited. Ia. Mexzo. Light, soft pulses, except in the leap on S. d\ which should be thrown with pressure on to the dis- sonant t, while the "resisting" d of the other parts is firmly given. Ib. Piano, with emphasis on S. and T. s. tlA. Forte, with emphasis on S. d' as before, the bright transition being marked by fe and the last three tones of the B. IIb. jlfcro, emphasizing the "returning" /especially in B. "Miiller," pp.82 and 113. Emotional Class — Bold and Spirited. Ia, b, c. Opens with cres., the leaping B. being given boldly. A pressure tone where the S. « leaps down to d or <,, and an explosive tone where these tones receive the leap. The transition marked by emphasis on C. fe, and on last three tones of B. n.4, B, c, D. Cres. to ff in He and dim. Emphasize retirming / in B. of IIa, 5 and t in IIb, / and se in lie, and / and « in B. of IId. "Croft's," pp. 81 and 113. Class- Grand. Emotional Ia, b. Mezzo, the tone sjustained with special emphasis on the tone / in B. and C. in first cadence. Ha, b. Ores, to fi' and dim. ; emphasize T. t. IHa, b. Ores, and dim. in each Section, emphasizing the " returning" / in If. and C. of IHa. "Bach," pp. 83 and 113. Emotional Class— Cheerful . Ia, b. Mezzo, with dim. in Ib. Soft pulses light. Pressure on S. rf', and explosion on the r to which it falls. Ha, b. Begin piano, and cres. to the end Soft pulses light. Emphasize " dis- tinguishing" t. IUa, b. First Section mezzo and dim., emphasizing returning / and B. Z, ; second Section piano, but very firm, e.specially in B. IVa, b. a forte outburst, beginning with " pressure to explosive " in S, rising t(j forte again on the S. d', with "pressure to explosive" as before, with veiy light weak accents, and dim. to end, "Sharon," pp. 84 and 113. Emotional Class — Solemn. Ia. Piano, rather slow. Emphasize S. s to set off the coming /. Make the " resisting " 7-aJi in 8. very firm (the 260 EXAMPLES OF EXPEESSION PLANS. B./andT. Z ^ill help it), and deliver the/ with " pressure to explosive." Ib. Ores, and dim. Let the stepwise B. flow steadily to set off the passionate leaps of the S., with all the emotional tones on its strong explosive accents. Ha. Ores, to forte. Mark well the tran- sition hy emphasizing the last four tones of the B. as well as the T. fe. Let the first t of S. (which is really the piercing tone about to change into the calm tone) have an explosive delivery, and give the d' (which is really/) with pressure to explosive. IIb. Begin foi-ie and dim. Emphasize B. andS./. " Evelyn," pp. 80, 112. Emotional Class— Solemn and Prayerful. Ia. Mezzo-piano, with exact and solemn tread of time, and emphasizing S. /. Ib. Piano. Emphasizing the T. and S. /. Ha. First Phrase cres., second dim. The B. delivered with solemn firmness on / and I, and very clearly in its last mea- sure, because the shape of the B in this cadence helps to make the modulation as much as the distin gashing tone itself. IIb. Pressure tone on S. r. Explosive tones on S. I, and r, emphasize T. /. "Camions," pp. 81, 112. Emotional Class — Solemn and firmly Sad. Ia. Piano, but very firmly, especially upon the characteristic tones of the modem !Minor se and/, and on the last three tones of the B. cadence. Is. Mezzo, with clear-cut accents. IIa. Forte, with dim, throwing great force on S. / and r, and giving the step- wise march of the B. very distinctly, for it comes as the "unexpected" after the previous leaping Sections. EEb. Mezzo, emphasizing the S. m ?, and r. "Melcombe," pp. 80, 112. Emotional Olass — Neutral and Variable, inclining to the " Solemn " by virtue of its thii-d cadence. Ia. Mezzo. For a prayerful sentiment, emphasize S. and B. I. For joyful sentiment take I lightly, and indeed all the soft accents, singing the time more quickly. Ib. Mezzo-forte. For prayerful sentiment, the B. Z| (which is really r) should be emphasized, and if the congregation wills it, let them ralUntando, emphasiz- ing the pleading fe. For joyful senti- ment, emphasize the B. r (which is really s) in cadence, and deliver the soft accents lightly. In either case the S. d' will receive the explosion tone. Ha.. Two Phrases, each beginniag p\an6 and cres. For prayerful sentiment, em- phasize and ralUntando the last measure. For joyful sentiment, touch r and J almost staccato, and emphasize s. Hb. Forte. For prayerful sentiment, emphasize B. I, and S. /. For joyful sentiment, touch the weak pulses light- ly, and emphasize the strong. We find this tune, in the same book, adapted to a prayerf vd hymn, thus — " O Thou who oamest from above. The pure celestial fire to impart, Kindle a flame of sacred love On the mean altai' of my heart." And to a joyful hymn thus — " O happy day that fixed my choice On Thee, "my Saviour and my Gkid : Well may this glowing heart rejoice, And tell its raptures all abroad." The first hymn might have been suited with a more prayerful tune, and the second with a more joyfxil one. But these ?*ss-impassioned — if not strictly unim- passioned — tunes are very elastic under the power of Expression. This is a very valuable quality when the character of the words is didactic and changeable. Thus for the lirst of the following verses such tunes may be sung without emotion and without much spirit, while for the second verse they may he sung in the iii-st line with what prayerful emotion they are capable of, and in the last two lines with eagerness and life. " If on our daily course, our mind Be set to haUow all we find, New treasures still, of countless price, God will provide for sacrifice." " Only, O Lord, in Thy dear love, Fit us for perfect rest above ; And help us, this and every day. To live more nearly as we pray." " Eeay," pp. 85 and 113. Emotional Class — ^Neutral and Variable. Ia, b. Piano, cres. to second d' in S., and dim. to end. Ha, b. Mezzo-cres. to 8. s, dim. to d', fm-te and dim. from/. Let the B. mark the distinguishing <|. 1 1 1 A, B. Piano, emphasizing " return- ing" /. IVa, b. Mezzo-cres. to second d' in S., then dim., the B. emphasizing fe and/. When the words change towards joy- fulness, sing aU the soft accents Ughtly and quicken the speed, and when they change towards sadness, emphasize the emotional tones, whether on strong pulsea I or weak. 261 Verbal Expuession. 144. Verbal Phrasing. — Elocutionists tell us that " wordB are not pronounced singly, but in groups." The words which specially belong to one another are treated as one " oratorical word " or phrase. The little words " a, an, the, of, to, for, at," &c., &c., are always -joined to some other word ; descriptive words are joined to the things they describe, and words connected by action are joined in one as far as -possible. Thus in the following verses, " the-man," " to-whom," " of -love," "in-vain," " suppli- cating-eye," " softening-heart," " another 's-pain/' " are-never- slow," cannot be separated, and on the other hand, each of these groups must be separated. " Blest-is-the-man whose-softening-heart To-gentle-offlces of-love Feels all-another's-pain ; His-feet are-never-slow : To-whom the-supplicating-eye He-views, through-mercy's-melting-eye, Is-never raised-in-vain ; — A-brother in-a-foe." A careful study of the sense soon enables the student thus to distinguish the verbal phrases. Some hints on this subject, including the exceptions suggested by " pause of emphasis," will be found in " Teacher's Manual," pja. 208 to 213. "Whenever any of the above rules cannot well be carried out, the " break " should be made after a word which will bear the emphasis which Pause always throws back. Thus it is above with the words "never," "offices," and "feet." Each of them might have been joined to that which follows, but a breathing-place was necessary, and they will well bear the emphasis. The student should exercise himself in writing many verses into their " oratorical words," as above. 145. Relation of Verbal and Musical Phrasing.— How- ever valuable music may be in adding force and feeling and beauty to a sentiment, yet it must ever be felt that words are able to express the soul's meaning more fully and more clearly than music. Therefore must music be held as always subordinate to the words to which it may be attached. In few things does this subordination become more manifest or more important than in Phrasing. The " place of bi'eak " which music would suggest is often quite different from that of the words, and the words suggest one " place of break " in one verse, and another " place of break " in another (see the two verses above), but the phrasing of the words must rule. 1456. Examples. — In "St. Fulbert," i requires it after "crowned;" the music pp. 128 and 243, the music would suggest suggests it after " di," but the sense a break after " once," but the sense | requires it after " dem ;" the music sug- requires it after "head;" the music | gests it after " vie," but the sense asks us Biiggesta it after "glo," but the sense to make no pause, and if any, after *'ty." 262 PHEASING BT SENSE 4JfD BY MUSIC. STATE OF MIND. In "Holyrood," pp. 130 and 245, the music makes a break after " from," sense after " us ;" music after " lighten," sense after " Light." In " Sigillus," pp. 130 and 245, music after " if," sense after " not." In "Grasmere," pp. 131 and 245, music after " shalt," sense after " which ;" music after "count," sense after "if;" music after " dy," sense after "each." In " St. Agnes," pp. 129 and 245, music after "ver," sense after " Jesus ;" music after "Thy," sense, if necessary, after "in." In " Heidelburg," pp. 131 and 243, music after " temp," sense after "dark- ness." In "Denby," pp. 129 and 243, music after " deem," sense after "er;" music after "liv," sense after " out " In " Gibbons," pp. 132 and 243, music after "we," sense after "Lord;" music after "Thy," sense after "us;" music after " the," sense after " self." In "Zui-ich," pp. 132 and 243, music after " from," sense after " ished ;" music after " glo," sense after "there;" music after "king," sense after "take." In "Harrington," pp. 129 and 24.3, music after " im," sense after " im- mortal." Mr. Alfred Stone, organist, of Bristol, was distingTiished by the study he gave to this subject, marking the " places of break" and breathing for his choir in the hymn-books, and lifting his hands from the finger-board at the end of each phrase. This plan acted hke a charm on the con- gregation, though they did not know why it was that Mr. Stone's choir and Mr. Stone's organ made them think so much of the words. See some fuller illustrations of this sub- ject in Mr. J. Spencer Curwen's article on "Elocution in Singing," "Teacher's Manual," p. 168. 146. The Singer's State of Mind.— It is of first importance to remember that we have to express, not the sense of particular ■words, or even particular phrases, but the state of mind and feeling proper to the whole of the sentiment littered. 1466. Examples.— ThMS, in the follow- ing verse, if we employed the arts of Expression to intensify the " wretched- ness" and "want" we should not express the singer's real state of mind, which is that of exulting thankfulness rejoicing in the prospect of "exhaustless riches." " Here may the wretched sons of want Exhaustless riches find, — Riches beyond what earth can grant, And lasting as the mind." In the following verse, if we use our expression chiefly to show off the "humble sigh," we shall forget Him who " hears" it ; if we let our thoughts dwell too much on the "tears" and the " weeping," we shall forget the hand that "wipes" them away ; and our state of mind ia that of humbly but confidently remembering them. " O Thou, whose tender mercy hears Contrition's humble sigh ; Whose hand indulgent wipes the tears From sorrow's weeping eye." In the following verse, if we spent our strength in pictmnng to the imagination the flowing stream or shivering cold, we shoiild carry the hearer away from our real state of mind, which is filled with the glorious "landscape" and with the re- solve to reach it. ] " Could we but climb where Moses stood, And \aew the landscape o'er, 1 Not Jordan's stream, nor death's cold flood. Should fright us from the shore." 1 146c. Learn to Feel— "Mi: Melville Bell, in his "Elocutionary Manual," frequently refers his pupils to the following couplet— - " To this one standard make your just appeal. Here lies the golden secret — Learn to feel.'" "The language of emotion," he says, " must accompany every utterance that is naturally delivered. Yet how many merely mechanical speakers there are, whose voices know no thrill of feeling, and who throw off their tame monotonous oratory ' coldly correct, and regularly duU,' "nerveless and passionless as auto- mata. Let it be the object of the elocu- tionary student to awaken in himself a sympathetic sensibilit}' with everj- utter- ance— to ' learn to feel ' — and to keep the fine stiTing organs of expressiveness in a state of delicate susceptibility. Lot him make the language he reads his ovm, and always, in its delivery, ' be in earnest.' " The faculty of realizing the meaning of poetry h.as already been cultivated in the exercises of writing "oratorical words" as above, p. 259. The student must now EMOTION IN POETRY. THE BOLD AND SPIRITED. 263 go a step further, and learn to s;impnthise with the feeling- of the poet. In seeking to strengthen this faculty, written exer- cises will he ver>' useful, but the best exercise of all is that of singing the words, to any suitable tune, as expressively as possible. " It is in doing, that we learn to do." What Mr. Henry Irving says of the trained actor is also ta-ue of the singer. " There is a natui-al dramatic fei'tility in everyone who has the smallest histrionic gift, so that as soon as he knows the author's text and obtains self- possession and feels at home in a part without being too familiar with it, the mere automatic action of rehearsing and playing it at once begins to place the author in new lights, and to give the personage being played an individuality partly independent of, and yet consistent with, and rendering more powerfully visible the dramatist's conception. It is the vast power a good actor has in this way which has led the French to speak of creating a part when they mean its being tirst played." 147. Classification of Emotions. — Our emotions may be classified into — 1st, Those which are Bold and Strong ; 2nd, Those which are Soft and Gentle ; and 3rd, Those which are Neutral, or not strongly impassioned, and Variable. The Bold and Strong emotions naturally divide themselves — 1) into ihose which have a Quick and Spirited Boldness, and 2) those which have a Slow a.nd Sustained Boldness. The Softer and Gentler emotions naturally divide themselves into those which are quickened by Gratitude, Love, Hope, &c., and those which are subdued by Solemnity, Sorrow, Submission. This gives us a five-fold division of the emotions ; — and we have seen* that Music supplies a corresponding five-fold classification of tunes, — so well are the powers of music adapted to the needs of the human mind. 1476. Notes. — In considering the state of mind proper to any particular verse, we must not be misled by the mere f onn of the words. Thus Example 20, p. 267, takes the form of Prayer, but it is really Didactic — that is, " declarative of facts or truths." Example 9 assumes the Didactic form, but is really and unmis- takeably an expression of joy in the things declared. And Example 11 takes the form of Prayer, but the petitions are evidently full of Confidence and Joy. It should also be noted that the same form of words may sometimes be made to express quite different states of feel- ing. Thus in Example 17, the words " it did not play" may be uttered either aloud in an outbiu-st of agony, or softly under a sense of depression. And in Example 25, the words "when you were there" may be given either as a bold stroke of outspoken meiTiment, or as a whispered insinuation. In the following verse the third line may be sung either as the voice of sudden and strong excitement, or as that of awe and lowly admiration. Rich and rare were the gems she wore. And a bright gold ring on her wand she bore ; But, oh ! her beauty was far beyond Her sparkling gems or snow-white wand. And the lines which follow may, accord- ing to the conception of the reader or singer, be delivered with a diminuendo a.nd rallentando of increasing Depression, or with a crescendo and accelerando of passionate agony. When true hearts lie withered. And fond ones are flown, Oh ! who would inhabit This bleak world alone 1 148. Bold and Spirited. — All the elements of expression which imply vigour and power, such as loudness, quickness, crescendo, explosion, &c., are employed to develop these emotions. As a general rule, a quickening of the speed and a more accented style accompanies the increase of loudness. Although a steady and unchanging I'ate of speed is necessary in quick mur.ict * Above, pp. 256, 257. 264 BOLD AND SPIRITED POKilS. GEA>D. because of the delicate rliji;hms wliich have to be displayed, it is not so in the Song and Hymn-tune Forms, in which change of Speed is a powerful means of showing change of Feeling. Even Mons. Lussy says, " We may change the speed for emotional expression in slow movements, but not in quick." 14S&. Examples. — The foUoTving ex- amples are chiefly taken from sacred poetry, because that kiad of poetry is most in the mind and mouth of the people. We use the ordinaiy tjTpe to represent the " normal " degree of force, or that which (arising from the emotional class to which the hymn belongis) is the prevailin'j or principal degi'ee of force used througrhout the piece. Thus in a Bold and Spirited tune the ordinarj- type would mean nif^zo-forU ; in a Cheerful tune, mezzo ; in a Solemn tune mezzo-piano. The italic letters (or in ■nriting, a single line under the words) we use to indicate something softer than the"nonnal force." The small capitals (or in writing, a double line under the words) we make to ex- press something louder than the "normal force." 1. Courage axd Resolve. Normal Force —Mezzo-forte. Awake-my-soul stretch-every-nerve, And-press with-^'igour on : A-heavenly-race demands-thy-zeal, A-BRIGHT IMM0BTAL-CB0W.S-. 2. TRiciipnAXT Joy. Normal Force — Mezzo-forte. No-more let-sin-and-son-ow grow, Nor-thoms infest-the-ground ; He-comes to-make-his-blessings-flow Fau-as-the-cukse is-found. He-rules - the - world with - truth - and - And-makes-the-nations prove [grace, ThE-GLOBIES OF-HIS-BIGnXEODSNESS, axd-woxdebs of-his-love. 3. Gladxess asd Geatitude. Normal Force — Mezzo-forte. Salvation ! oh-the-joyful-sound ! 'Tis-pleasure to-our-ears ; A-sovereign-balm for-every-woand, A-cordial for-our-fears. Buried-iii-sorrow and-in-sin, At-helV s-dark-door we-lay ;^ But-we-arise by-grace-divine, To-3ee a-ueavexly-day. accelerando. SaLVATIOX ! LET-THE-ECHO FLY The-spacious-eabth ABOnxD ; While-all-the-aejiies of-the-skv COXSPIEE to-baise-the-sound. 4. Great Joy. Normal Force — Forte. Give-one-cheer-more For-the-deai'-old-shore, Fob-Exglaxd, hearth, asd-homb. Both-loud-and-clear Eingeth-out-our-dieer, 'Tis-Exglaxd, heabth, axd-home. Laxd-ho, hurrah, laxd-ho ! 149. Grand. — The Grand poems, like the Grand tunes have often a mixture of Solemnity in them, but they are always Dignified and Sustained even when the subdued feeling requires the singing to be soft. As with tunes, so also with poetry, the emotion sometimes changes, especially in the conclusion, from one of Bold and Spirited feeling to one of Sustained Grandeur. 1495. Examples. — The following ex- amples will illustrate these points. They should be read, sung, and discussed by the earnest student. 5. AwB IN Worship. Normal Force — Mezzo-piano. Great-God ! how-infinite-art-thou ! — What-ivorthless-uorms are-we! TiCt-aU-the-race-of-creatui-es bow, AxD-rAV-THEIB-rHAISE TO-THEE. Our -lives through -various -scenes -are drawn, And-vexed with-trifling-cares ; sustained. [ox, AVuile-thi.ne-etebxal-thodgut moves- cres. TniXE-UXDISTURBED-AFFAIRS. 6. Awe ix Thought and Imagixatiox. Normal Force — Mezzo-piano. That-day-of-wrath ! that-dreadful-day. When - heaven - and-eartb shall - pass- away ! CHEERFUL EMOTION IN POETRY. 265 WTiat-power shaU-be-the-sbmer's-stay f rail, and cres. Uow-shaU-he~nieet Ihat-dreadful-day, — When shrivelliug'-like-a-parchcd-scroll, The-flaming-heavens together-roll ; crcs. AND-LonDBR-TET, and-yet-more-drcad, SWELLS-TUB-niGH-TRUMP TUAT-WAKES- TUE-DEAD ? 7. Boldness cnANOi.va to Awe and Grandeur. Normal Force — Mezzo-forte. Cannon -to-right - of - them, cannon - to- left-of-them, Cannon - behind - them volleyed - and- thundered ; Stormed-at-with-shot-and-shell, "while- horse-and-hero-f eU : They-that-had-foug-ht-so-weU, came- from-the-ja-ws-of-death, '•«'^. raU. Back from-the-mouth-of-heU, all-thal- was-left-of-ihem — mil. Left of -six-hundred. Slower and sustained. When can-their-gloiy-fade ? Oh, the- wild-charge-they-made ! All-the-world wondered. Honour the-cuarge-tiiey-madb! Hon- our the-Light-Brigade I NOBLB SIX-HUNDRED ! 150. Cheerful, — Poems expressive of Cheerful emotion should be sung with a normal force neither Loud like the " Bold and Spirited," nor Soft like the " Solemn " pieces, but of medium power, They will generally require the emotional tones (t r f 1) to be touched in a light and somewhat staccato style. The rate of speed will be generally quick and inspiriting, with very light soft-accents. Change of speed and force is allowed in these quicker tunes to some extent, as when a descriptive or meditative phrase throws the mind into a subdued, observant, thoughtful attitude, and suggest piano, — or whnn expectation or ]oyfal thought rises to higher intensity, and demands the quickening of speed. 1506. Examples.— Ihe following ex- amples show different phases of the cheerful spirit. 8. Joyful Hope. Normal Force — 3Iezzo. His-hand-divine shall-lead-you-on Thi-ough-aU the-blissful-road, cres. Till to-the-sacred-mount-you-rise, AXD-SEE YOUR-QEACIOUS-GOD. fright-garlands of-immortal-joy " Shall-bloom on-evei-y-head ; WlIILE-SORROW, sighing, AND-DISTRESS, Like-shadows, all-are-fled. 9. Happiness. Normal Force — Mezzo. There-is-a-stream, whose-gentle-flow Supplies the-city-of-our-God : Life, love, and-joy, still-gliding-through, And-watering our-divine-abode. That-sacred-stream, thy-holy-word,— Supports-our-faith, oui'-fear-controls ; Sweet^peace thy-promises-afford, And-oive-ne\v -strength to -faint - \ng-souls. 10. Gratitude. Normal Force — Mezzo. When-all-thy-mercies 0-my-God, My-rising-soul sm-veys, cres. Transported-with-the-view I'm-lost In-WONDER, love, AND-PRAI8E. accelerando. Ten - thousand - thousand precious - GIFTS My-daily-thanks employ ; Nor-is-the-least a-cheerful-heart, Th at-tastes-those-gifts with-jot . 11. Loving Confidence. Normal Force — Mezzo. Gioe-me a-calm-a-thanlcful-heart, From-every-viarmur free ; The-blessings-of-thy-grace impart, And-make-me live-to-thee. Oli-let-the-hope that-thou-art-mine, My-life-and-death attend ; cres. Thy - presence through - my - journey • shine, Anu-crown my-jouknky's-end. 266 SOLEMN EMOTION IN POETRT. 12. Joyful Sympathy. Normal Force — Mezzo. Bird - of- the - wilderness, blithesome -and- cuviberless, Sweet-be~thy-matin o' er-moorland-and- lea : Emblem -of -happiness, blest -is -thy - dwelling-place ; Oh!-to-abide in-the-desebt-with- THEE ! Wild - is - thy - lay-and-loud, f ar-in-the- downy-cloud ; Love -gives -it -energy, love -gave -it- birth. Where-on-the-devry-wing, where-art- thou-joumeying ? Thy-lat-is-in-heaven, earth. rail. (hy-lovt-is-cn 13. Sympathetic Gaiety. Normal Force — Mezzo-piano. Come-out, 'tis-now-September, The-hunter' s-moon' s-begun ; And-lhrough-the-wheaten-stiibble Is-heard the-frequenl-gun. accelerando. All-among-the-Barley, Who-would-not-be-blithe, When-the-free-and-h AFP Y-B ablet IS-SMILING ON-THE-SCVTHE ? 151. Solemn. — The various emotions of Solemnity naturally suggest a slow pace of utterance, and a low degree of force. They call for the special development of those tones and chords of a tune which are most " congenial " with the spirit of the words. Whenever prayerfulness or pleading has to be expressed pressure tone will be largely used on the weak-pulses. It is a mistake to think, as some do, that merely singing softly without singing slowly will produce the efEect of Solemnity. 1516. Examples. — "We spoke of "con- gfenial" tones above, p. 256. We then emphasized the tones which were " of the same nature with " the emotional class to which the tune belonged. We now have to look higher ; we have to empha- size the tones and the chords and the musical phrases which are congenial with the words themselves. 14. Solemn Meditatioij. Normal Force — Mezzo-piano. How-still-and-peacefxil is-the-grave, "Where, life's-vain-tumults-past, The-appointed-house, by-Heaven's -de- cree, Seceives-us-all at-last I All, levelled-by-the-hand-of-death, Lie-sleeping in-the-tomb, cres. TUl-God in-judgment-calls-them-forth sustained. to-meet theie-final-doom. 15. Solemn Pbayee. Normal Force — Mezzo-piano. Oh !-wash-my-soul from-every-sin, And-make-my-guilty-eonscience clean ; Uere-on-my-heart the-burden-lies, And-pasi-offences pain-mine-eyes. My-ljps, with-shame-my-sins-confess, Against-thy-law, against-thy-grace : Lord, should-thy-judgment-^roi<;-ieyere, sustained and rail, l-am-eondemned, but-tuou-abt-cleab. 16. Solemn Pleading. Normal Force — Mezzo Piano, Show-pity-Lord 0-Lord-forgxve, Let-a-repenting-rebel live : Are-not-thy-mercies large-and-free T May-not-a-sinner trust-in-thee 1 My-crimes-are-great but-can' t-surpasa cres. The-power-and-glory of-thy-grace : sustained. [bound, Great -God, thy -nature -hath -no - So-let-thy-pardonino-love be-found! 17. Sysipathetic Sorrow. Normal 'Eotq.q— Mezzo-piano. With-ceaseless-sorrow, uncontrolled, The-mother moumed-her-lot ; cres. She-wept, and-would-not-be-consoled, Because-her-ehild was-not. She-gazed upon-its-nursery-floor, But-there it-did- not-play ; The-toys-it-loved, the-clothes-it-wore, rail. All void-and-vacant-lay . 18. Solemn Description. Nonnal Force — Mezzo-piano. On-Linden, when-the-sun-was-low, All-bloodless lay-the-untrodden-snow ; And-dark-as-winter vjas-tke-Jlow Of-Iser, rolling-rapidly. But-Linden showed-another-sight "When-the-drum-beat at-dead-of-night, sustained. Cokmandino-fires-of-death to-lioht Thk-dabkness of-uer-sceneby I VARIABLE. DESCRIPTIVE. MEDITATIVE. 267 152. Neutral and Variable. — Poems wliich are of a Didactic character, expressing no particular emotion, should be sung neither very Slowly nor very Quickly, neither Loudly nor Softly, but with medium force and speed. Those which are Variable in their emotional character will vary greatly in speed and force and style according to the emotion, because, as we cannot alter the tune itself, there is nothing but this wherewith to change the emotion. Descriptive passages should in the main be sung softly, because the mental attitude of listening and observing is one of subdued emotion. The same may be said of those which express Meditation or Bepose. The unexpected is always impressive. The movement which is expected to accom- pany soft singing is slow. If, therefore, the music is suddenly made both soft and quich, the sentiments of light gaiety or inuendo find a natural expression. For the purposes of comic poetry an exaggerated solemnity is often employed. 1526. Examples. — The following' are only a few of the many kinds of Didactic and Varied Poetry. 19. Didactic and Varied. Normal Force — Mezzo. The-unwearied-sun, from-day-to-day, Does-his-Creator's-power display, And-publishes to-every-land The-work of-an-almighty-hand. Soon-as-the-evening-shades prevail, The-moon takes-up-the-wondrous-tale, And-nightly , to-the-listening-earth Bepeats the-story-of-her-hirth. In-reason's-ear they-all-rejoice, And-utter-forth a-gloriou3-voice ; For-ever-singing, as-they-shine, " The-hand-that-made-us is-divine.' 20. Didactic changing to the De- scriptive, THE Prayerful, and the Confident. Normal Force — Mezzo. My-dear-Eedeemer, and-my-Lord, I-read-my-duty in-thy-word ; But-in-thy-life the-law-appears Drawn-out in-living-characters. Cold-mountains and-the-midnight-air Witnessed the-fervour-of-thy-prayer: The-desert thy-temptations-knew, Thy-conflict, and-thy-victory-too. Be-thou-my-pattem, malce-me-bear More-of-thy-gracious-image here ; Then-God-the- Judge, shall- own- my- name Among the-followers-of-the-Lamb. 21. Didactic changing to Reqbbt, Prayer, and Joyfui, Hope. Normal Force — Mezzo. I-cannot-cali-affliction sweet ; And-yet ' twas-good-to-bear ; Affliction brought-me-to-thy-feet, And-I-found-comfort there. My-wearied-soul was-all-resigned To-thy most-gracioui-will : -=: =» Oh had-I-kept that-better-mind, Or-been -afflicted still. Lord-grant-me-grace for-every-day, "Whate'er-my-state may-be ; Through-life, in-death, with-truth- to-say, sustained. My-Qod is-all-to-mb I 2. Dramatic Description. Excitb- MENT. Quiet Confidence. Normal Force — Mezzo. Bow I gains-the-leak-so-fast T Clean-out-the-hold ; Hoist-up-thy-merchandise, Heave-out-thy-gold ; There ! let-the-ingots-go ! Now the-ship-rights ; Hurrah ! the-harbour's-near— Lo, the-red-lights ! Slacken-not-sail-ybt At-inlet-or-island ; Straioht-for-the-beacon-steeb, Straight- for-the-high-land. Crowd-all-thy-canvass-on, Cut-through-the-foam — ral. Christian ! cast-anchor-now— sustaijted. Heaven is-thy-homk ! 268 BELATION OP MUSICAl AND VERBAL EXPIiESSION. 23. Desceiptios. Agoxy. Deajiatic Dialogue. Normal Force — Mezzo. A-chieftain, to-the-Highlands-bound, Cries-" BOATMAX-DO-XOT-TARRT ! And-I'll-give-thee a-silver-pound, To-row-us o'er-the-ferry." accelerando, *'n0w-wn0-be-te would-cboss-loch- Gyle, ThIS-DABK AND-ST0R3IY-WATEB 1 " "Ohl-rm the-chief-of-Ulva's-Isle, And-this Lord-Ullin's-daugliter." Out-spoke the-hardy-Highland-wi^ht, "I'll-go-ity-Chief ril-READY : — It-is-not for-your-silver-bright, But for-your-wiiisome-leddie." And-still-they-rowed, amidst-the-roar Of-'waters fast-prevailing. Lord- Ullin. reached-tha l-fatal-shore — His-wrath was-changed-to-wailing ; For-sore-dismayed, through-storm-and- shade, His-child he-did-discover : One-lovely-arm she-stretched-for-aid, And-one was-round-her-lover . accelerando. " Come-back ! come-back ! " he-cried- in-grief, Across-this-stormy-water : " And -I'll- fokgive youe -Highland- chief — Mt-daughtee ! O-my-daughter I " ' Twos-vain : the-loud-waves-lashed-the- shore, Eetum-or-aid preventing ; rail. The-waters-wild u-ent-o'er-his-ckild, roll. And-he was-left-lamenting." 24. Desckiption. Subdued Joy. Hope- ful Mourning. Normal Force — Mezzo. And-children coming-home-from-scliool Look-in-at-the-open-door ; They-love-to-see the-flaming-forge, And-hear the-bellows-roar, cres. and accel. And-catch-the-buming-sparks that-fly Like-chaff from-a-threshing-floor. He-goes-on-Sunday to-the-church, And-sits among-his-boys ; He-hears the-parson-pray-and-preact — He-hears his-daughter' s-voice Singing in-the-village-choir, And-it-makes-His-HEABT rejoice. It-sounds-to-him like-her-mother' s-voice, sustained. Si.ngixg-in-Pabadise ! He-needs-must-think-of-her once-more, Hoiv-in-thc-grave she-lies ; -Vnd-vrith-hia-hard-rough-hand he-unpa rail. A-tear out-of-his-eyes. 25. Dramatic Dialogue. Ixuexdo. Normal Force — 3Iezzo. " Now-Farmer, do-f or-once-speak-true, Mixd-!you'ee-ox-oath; so-teU-me, you, AVho-doubtless-think-yourself so-clever, Are-thebe-as-many-fool8 as-ever In-the-West-Eiding I " " Why-no-sir-no ; we've-got-our-share, rail. Bufc-not-so-many as-virHEN-You-WEBE- there." — No-more-was-needed ; mth -an -angry - frown, rail. The -baffled -counsel s&t -in- sHerux- doicn.''^ 26. Mocking Fu.v. Normal Force — Mezzo-piano, rU-teU-you-a-story that's-not-in-Toin • Moore : Young-Love likes-to-knock-at-a-pretty- girl's-door : So-he-caUed-upon-Lucy 'twas-past-ten- o' clock ; Like-a-sPRUCE-sixGLE-man, with-a- smart-double-'knoc\s., The-meeting-was-bliss, hiU-the-parting- was-woe ; For-the-moment-will-come when-sach- comers-must-go ; So-she-sighed-and-she-whispered poor- innocent-thing rail. " The-next-time-you-come-love, pray- come-with-a-ring ." For a great variety of additional ex- amples and useful exercises, see "Stan- dard Course," pp. 130 to 136. 153. Relation of Verbal and Musical Expression. — The Bubordinatiou of music to words has already been asserted in relation to " Phrasing." See above, p. 100. This subordination is equally necessary in all other forms of musical expression. ADAPTATION OF HTMNS AND TUNES. 269 153J. Examples. — Thus in "Holyrood," p. 130, "the evening' shadows fall" ex- presses a subdued feeling', but the music rises to a higher excitement. In such a case the singer ■will have to repress the musical expression, and instead of sing- ing boldly and forte, he ■will have to sing softly, legato, and rallentando. Again in "Middleton," p. 136, "Frail as vapour, ■vile as dust" are words of confession and lowliness. The natural expression of the music contradicts this feeling, and again the piano, the legato, and the ral- lentando must be used to destroy the natural effect of the music. Thus also in "St. Fulbert," p. 128, "The mighty victor's brow" is a cUmax of lofty praise; but the cori'esponding music expresses repose after excitement. It ■will require all the staccato force that can be thrown into it to prevent its destroying the force of the words. It is worth noting, however, that when the general spii-it of the tune agrees with the general spirit of the hymn, there is but little contradiction between the ex- pression of the one and the other. This may be noticed in looking through the examples, pp. 128 to 137. 154. Adaptation of Hymns and Tunes. — As in many churches it is the duty of the Precentor to find fitting tunes for the hymns chosen by the Minister this study of adaptation becomes one of general usefulness. This duty is one of great responsibility, for a Bold and Spirited tune set to a hymn of penitence and submission jars upon the feelings of the con- gregation, although they may not know what it is that is driving the prayerful spirit out of them. And a Solemn or merely Neutral tune adapted to a hymn of praise destroys the joyfulness of the people, and injures their worship. The devout Precentor has three means in his power for helping the spiritual exercise of praise. They are proper Phrasing, proper Expression, and pi-oper selection of Tune. Of these three the selection of the tune is the most important. To fit himself for his task the student must first gain a mental command of the tunes actually used in his church. Having classified them according to their metres he should study well their emotional class ; so that under each metre he may have at the call of his memory one or more tunes of each class. This intimate knowledge of the tunes and their capabilities we have found to be the chief difficulty of every young Precentor, and he must not shrink from the course of careful exercises which will give him the required mastery of tunes. Tlie student must next learn to see the emotional class of the psalm or hymn presented to him. This, a careful study and free discussion of the above examples will enable him to do. Ha-ving thus mastered the hymn, and the tunes of that particular metre standing in array before him, a very little additional exercise of judgment about peculiarities of structure and expres- sion will fix the adaptation. 1546. Examples. — The haphazard way in which tunes are often adapted to hymns at the last moment before going into the ser^vice is very distressing to aU eamest-minded people. The precentor often asks himself only these two ques- tions—1st, "Is this tune of the right metre?" and 2nd, "Have we had it lately?" Sometimes he asks himself, "Does it go well?" No question about the spirit of the tune helping the spirit of the hymn ever enters tlie minds cf many men who are entrusted ■with this sacred duty. 270 A.DAPTATIOU'. We can illustrate this subject by means of the hymns and tunes above, pp. 128 to 137. The verses there printed are those ■which we found in the books from which the tunes were taken. They are gener- ally quite suitable ; but in foiu' cases we have "ventured to suggest, within square brackets, better ada-ptations. " Denbigh," p. 129, is a cheerful m-tune. By singing it very slowly it may be made into a Solemn tune, not unsuitable, for example, to hymn 16, p. 266, above. Biit its emphasis on the emotional tones fir, and its many leaps make it unsuitable for a Neutral or Didactic. The hymn " My dear Redeemer " is of this declkra- tive and almost Didactic character. In singing "Denbigh " to it (whether quickly or slowly) we feel that the tune is all the while wanting to express something more of feeling than the words supply. These ■words would be well suited by " Mel- combe," p. 80, and we think that the cheerful hymn in square brackets will better suit " Denbigh." "Holyrood," p. 130, is so decidedly a Bold and Spirited d-s-tune (notwith- standing the last Une) that it is difficult to repress its joyfulness while we are expressing our regret that "Our day of praise is done." The verse in square brackets is as Bold and Spirited as the tune. " Lavington." p. 133, has a great pre- dominance of d, s, and m, and its rhythms are all of such a character as to strei^hen the strong accents. Sung quickly it is necessarily "Bold and Spirited." Sung slowly its rhythms alone prevent its being " Grand." It cannot be made to express that lo-ving, grateful, cheerful trust which inspires this beautiful hj-mn. " Middleton," p. 136, has such an equality of power between d m r /, and so much of stepwise motion that it easily adapts itself to the narrative or Didactic stj-le. But its style is quite foreign from the tone of himable penitence and prayer. These examples will show how im- portant for earnest religious purposes is the careful adaptation of tuiies and hymns — of " music married to immortal verse." Note. — The folio-wing courses of exercises are arranged on the plan of those above, p. 235. As the expression of the exercises in connection -with "Standard Course" are so fully suggested in the "Hints on Tunes" which follow the "Addi- tional Exercises" we cannot use that book for netv exercises. But the student of Expression ■will find the study of those "Hints" along ■with constant reference both to the music and to the paragraphs of "Standard Course" an iuvaluable exercise to him, after he has gone through the folio-wing courses. As was said above, pp. 240, 241, the student must first learn to be the " sagacious imitator" and afterward^ the Deviser— of good Expression. The book should be studied ■with extreme care. Every illustration should be closely examined and sung. TTie reasons given for expression should be noted and discussed. The examiner gives marks according to the proofs which appear in the exercises that the ■writer has a clear apprehension of the meaning of the book. If the pupU finds himself much pu2zled in working the exercises, it is because he has not properly understood the book. Let him never go on puzzled and perplexed, but let him always go back to the book and trace out its examples with renewed care. The pupU is at present engaged in the process of learning, and therefore originality and discovery are not now required of him — only a careful application of the principles developed in his text book. For the sake of the Examiner, the writing especially of the music must be very clear, and on uniform paper — the small size Tonic Sol-fa music paper. Carelessly written exercises will lose marks. FIRST STAGE. FmsT Set. Musical Phrasing and Evipression of Melodic Shapes.— Stndy " Musical Theory," Book IV, pp. 241 to 247. A Course. — Copy out (in very clear B Couese. — Mark for Musical Phras- writing) on Tonic Sol-fa music paper, ing, es directed, p. 242, par. 123^, and small size, and mark for Musical Phras- sho^wn p. 245, tunes 20, 4, 10, 18, in ing, as directed p. 242, par. 123^, and " Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," and COURSES OF EXERCISES. 271 Bhown p. 245 ; times 1, 9, 15, 24 in "Hymns and Tunes foi- Exercise,"* and the air of Haydn's "Finale" (p. 207), Ib and IIb. Mark for Expression as directed, p. 246, tlie following Sections in " H>^nns and Tunes for Exercise," tune 1, Ia, IIa ; tune 9, Ia, IIa; tune 15, 1b; tune 24, Ia, d. Second Set. Expression of Belated Parts. — Study " Musical ?49, 251, 262. ' iw Course. — Name four cases of the Unexpected in Rhythm, three of the Unexpected in Melody, and three of the Unexpected in Harmony (that is. Tran- sition, Modulation, or Chromatics) in tunes 16, 67, 75, 82, 6, 30, 48, 2, 74, 85, in " Hymns and Tunes for Exercise." Name them thus — Unex. in Rhy., No. 86, meas. 10, r ; No. 90, meas. 13, /, &c. Unex. in Mel., No. 91, meas. 12, m, &c. Find, without help, another case, not mentioned in Mr. Curwen's books, of the Unexpected in Rhythm, Melody, Har- mony. Copy the Sequences in tunes 11, 13, 32, 65, 70, in " Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," and mark them for Expres- sion. "Write well and clearly, and mark for Expression, 1st, the Bass of Ia in "Mtiller," p. 82; 2nd, the Tenor of Ha in "Cannons," p. 81; 3rd, the Bass of Ib in " Sharon," p. 84 ; 4th, the Bass of FVa in "Reay," p. 85; 5th, Tenor of Ia in " Reay," p. 85 ; 6th, Contralto of Ib in " Evelyn," p. 80 ; and 7th, Soprano of rV'u, meas. 2, 3, 4, in "In Jewi-y," p. 151. the air of Beethoven's " First Movement " (p. 200), Ia, b. Mark for Expression as directed p. 246 the followinpr Sections in "Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," tune 20, Ia, IIa ; time 4, Ia, IIa ; tune 10, IIa, b ; tune 18, Ia, IIa. the Unexpected, of Sequence, of Theory," Book IV, pp. 247 to B Course.— Name as in A Course four cases of the Unexpected in Rhythm, three of the Unexpected in Melody, and three of the Unexpected in Harmony (that is. Transition, Modulation, or Chromatic) in tunes 45, 74, 76, &S, 27, 47, 59, 41, 58, 81, in " Hymns and Tunes for Exercise." Find, without help, another case, not mentioned in Mi'. Cm-wen's books, of the Unexpected in Rhythm, Melody, Har- mony. Copy the Sequences in tunes 12, 17, 43, 64, 69, in "Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," and mark them for Expres- sion. Write well and clearly, and mark for Expression, 1st, Bass of IIa in "Eve- lyn," p. 80 ; 2nd, Bass of IIb in "MUUer," p. 82; 3rd, Tenor in IVa of "Bacli," p. 83 ; 4th, Bass of IIa in " Sharon," p. 84 ; 5th, Tenor of Ia in " Evelyn," p. 80 ; 6th, Tenor of IHb in " Reay," p. 85 ; and 7th, Soprano of VIA, meas. 3, 4, in "In Jewiy," p. 152. Third Set. Expression of Fugal Tmitaiion, Accompaniment, Imitative Sounds, Rapid Passages, Unison Passages, Cadences, Dissonances, and Organ-point. — Study " Musical Theory," Book IV, pars. 133a, h, 135a, h, 136, 137, 138, 139a, h. 140, 141. A Course. — Find without aid and write a new example (not referred to in Mr. Curwen's works), never extendinf? to more than three or four measiwes, of the expreseion described in each of the above paragfraphs. Mark them for expression, or describe the expression they should have. Note. — The student may find examples in B Course. — Find without aid, and write a new example (not referred to in Mr. Cui-wen's works) never extending to more than three or four measures, of the ex- pression described in each of the above paragraphs. Mark them for expression, or describe the expression they should have. Reporter," Nos, 447, .'545, 48(;, 450. *c. FoiTRTH Set. The Toyie-power in a Melody, and its Emotional Class. — Study "Musical Theory," Book IV, pp. 256 to 259, fixing first in the understanding, then in the memory, the ten principles of emotional effect, and the six sources of tone-power, — and verifying fully every illustration of emotional class. A Course. — Analyse for tone-power B Course. — Analyse for tone-power and emotional class tlie following- tunes and emotional class (as in A Course) the from " Hymna and Times for Exercise." following tunes from " Hymns and Tunea • J. Curwen & Sons Ltd. Pilce 4d. 272 COOBSES OF EXEECI8KS. dive the residls of your analysis and the for Exercise" — Nos. 2, 6, 10, 16, 20, 2S., reasons for your classifications thiis — No. 34, 38, 46, 53, 64, 71, 75, 81. 86, d 20, r 3, m 10, / i, s 12, &e. Bold and Spirited because d and s predomin- ate, there are many leaps, and it is in quick four-pulse measure. Nos. 1, 5, 9, 15, 19, 27, 33, 45, 50, 56, 63, 79, 35, 78. Fifth Set. Musical Expression Plan. — Study " Musical Theory," Book lY, pp. 249 to 251, pars. 129, 130, 134, and pp. 259, 260, with careful verification of examples. A Course.— Write the expression-plan B Course. — "Write the expression -plan, as pp. 259, 260, of the foUowing tunes as pp. 259, 260, of the following tunes from "Hymns and Tunes for ExercLse," from "Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," Nos. 3, 7, 12, 17, 21, 30, 37, 40, 47, 54, 60, Nos. 4, 8, 13, 18, 24, 31, 36, 49, 55, 62, 69, 66, 76, 82. 57, 83, 84. SECOND STAGE. Sixth Set. Metres. Verbal Phrasing. Expression. — Study " Musical Theory," Book III, pp. 127, 128; and Book TV, pp. 261 and 262, with verification of all the examples, par. 145&. A ConESE. — Analyse the metres as above, p. 128 ; write out, dividing the " oratorical words," as p. 261 ; and mark for normal force and expression, as on pp. 264 to 268, the following verses from " Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," Nos. i, 10, 17, 24, 28, 32, 40, 45, 56, 59, 62. Seventh Set. Ditto. A Course.— Ditto hymns No. 3, 12, 10, 26, 30, 38, 43, 47, 54, 61, 64. Eighth Set. Classification and Tunes. — Study " Musical Th A Course. — Find, without assistance, and write out the melody of a suitable tune to each of the following hymns printed on pp. 264 to 267. E.xamples 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 16, 20. Name the Emotional Class of each of the following hymns from " Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," and write the melody of a suitable tune tor each, giving your reasons in each case for thinking the tune to be of the same class as the hj-mn — Nos. 1, 7, 13, 19. Ninth Set. Ditto. A Course.— Name the Emotional Class of each of the following hyrnns from "Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," and write the melody of a suitable tune for each, giving your reasons in each case for thinking the tune to be of the same cla.ss as the hymn— Nos. 3, 9, 15, 21, 25, 29, 33, 37, 54, 58. Tenth Set. Ditto. A Course. — As above, Nos. 5, 11, 17, 23, 27, 31, 35, 39, 43, 56. B Course. — Analyse the metres as above, p. 128, write out, dividing the " oratorical words," as p. 261, and mark for normal force and expression, as on pp. 264 to 268, the following verses from "Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," Nos. 2, 11, 18, 25, 29, 33, 41, 46, 58, 60, 63. B Course. — Ditto hymns No. 4, 13, 20, 27, 31, 35, 39, 44, 43, 57, 65. of Hymns. Adai^tation of Hymns eory," Book IT, pp. 263 to 271. B Course. — Find, ■nnthout assistance, and write out the melody of a suitable tune to each of the fcllowing hymns printed on pp. 264 to 267. Examples 3, 6, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21. Name the Emotional Class of each of the following hymns from " Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," and write the melody of a suitable tune for each, giving your reasons in each case for thinking the tune to be of the same class as the hymn — ^Nos. 2, 8, 14, 20. B Course.— Name the emotional Class of each of the following hymns from "Hymns and Tunes for Exercise," and write the melody of a suitable tune for each, giving your reasons in each case for thinking the tune to be of the same class as the hymn— Nos. 4, 10, 16, 22, 26, 30, 34, 38, 55, 59. B Course.— As above, Nos. 6, 12, 18, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 57. THE TONIC SOL-FA COLLEGE. SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPER. MUSICAL AND VERBAL EXPEESSION. FIRST STAGE. Time allowed, 3 hotirs. 1. (a) Mark tlie following for Musical Phrasing : — KEY G. T.ah is E. |1, :1, |1, :-.t,|d :r \m :1 Id :d |m :-.in Is :s |f.m:r 1 :-.s |s :f ;f :-.ni |m :r f :ni |r :-.l|jl| :t. |8, r :1| |r ;f |m :r |d f :r \m il. Id tt, |1, (6) Mark the above for Expressin?7. 2. (ft) Find in the tune " Sanctuary," by Dr. J. B. Dykes, a case of the Unexpected, classifying it as Rhythmic, Melodic, or Harmonic. (/)) Find also a case of Sequence, and mark it for Expression, (c) Mark the Tenor part for Expression. 3. Mark the following for Expression. (a) Fugal Imitation. KEY A. Lah is Ff. S.S.C.T.B. f :r :t, d :1, f, et in - car- 1 m :d et in - I, :— car- 1, na t, :t, :r et in - car- na - tus est, in - car- Bach. t :se :m d :— : — — :ma :r et in - car- na _ tus se,: — -.se, 1, :d :ma r :1, :— na - tus est, in - car- :1, na- tus 1, :d :1, - tus f -.m :r est, in n :1 - car- :d na - tus 1, :— :r na - tus est, in n :d - car- :1, na - tus fe,: — :fe, et in - car- ua - tus {b) Eapid Passages. IIandel. I : .1 |r,fe.m,r;s,fe.s ,t, |d,i>i.r ,d :f ,ni.f ,l,it|,r.d,t,:ni;r.iri,S| I re - joice I I l„d.t|,l,:r ,d.r ,f||s„t,.l„S|:d,ni,r ,d If ,m.f ,r :ni ,r,m,d |r : (c) Dissonances. KEY D. / d' 11 t d' / m — r — d — t, d \ s If f \ d 1, — s, — s, — S| i n' |r' r' } 8 f -.m,f s -.f,m r -.d,r m d |S s, d I (27C f, PI, -■f, T d, 274 MOSICAL AND VKRBAL EXPKKSSION. {(l) Cadences, KEY B. \m :r IS, :f, Id :t, 1 8, :s, XET A. KEY A. d — / f ;i'i.f PI :r m m -ir ( m, — \ 1, :s,.l, d :s, d d -It, d — i r :— d :t, } s s — 1— } 1, — [ r :— s, :— { d s, — 1 — [ KEY A. d :t, |d 1, :s, |8, f :f in f, -.8, Id, 4. (a) Write tlie Expression Plan of "Sanctuary" (ques. 2), and (6) name its Emotional Class, SECOND STAGE. (a) Analyse the Metres as directed in " Mus. Theory," Book III, . 128. {b) Divide into Oratorical luords (see p. 261) ; and (c) Mark for Normal Force and Expression the following : — 1 Touched with a sympathy ^thin, He knows our feeble frame ; He knows what sore temptations mean, For He has felt the same. He in the days of feeble fiesh, Poirred out His cries and tears ; And in TTis measme feels afresh What every member bears. 2 "Till He come," O let the words Linger on the trembling chords ; Let the little while between, In their golden light be seen ; Let us think how heaven and home Lie beyond that " Till He come." Clouds and conflicts round us press ; "Would we have one son'ow less 2 All the sharpness of the cross, All that tells the world is loss. Death and darkness, and the tomb Only whisper, " Till He come." 3 My heart to Thee I bring. The heart I cannot read ; 0 faithless wandering thing. An e\"il heart indeed. 1 bring it. Saviour, now to Thee, That fixed and faithful it may be. My joy to Thee I bring. The joys Thy love hath given, That each may be a wing To Uft me nearer heaven. I bring them. Saviour, all to Thee, For Thou hast purchased all for me. 4 When my feet stumble, to Thee I'll cry, Crown of the humble. Cross of the high ; When my steps wander, o'er me bend, Truer and fonder, Sa\dour and Friend. Ever confessing Thee, I will raise Unto Thee blessing, glory, and praise ; All my endeavours, world without end. Thine to be ever. Saviour and Friend. (a) Name the Emotional Class of each of the following; {b) Pind a suitable tune for each ; and (c) Give reasons for yotu- selection. KoTE.— The tunes may be selected from "Hymns and Tunes" or any other published collection ; but, in the latter case, the tunes must be copied out. 1 The pity of the Lord To those that fear His name, Is such as tender parents feel ; He knows our feeble frame. Our days are as the grass. Or like the morning flower ; If one shaip blast sweep o'er the field. It withers in an hour. 2 Amongst a thousand liai-ps and songs, Jesus, the God, exalted reigns ; His sacred name fills all their tongues. And echoes through the heavenly plains. Note. — Fui-ther tests, if desired, as also tests for other subjects, may be obtained from the Secretarj- of the Tonic Sol-fa College, 27, Finsbuiy Square, London, B.C. Price list on application. 3 lu the weary night of sickness. In tlie time of grief and pain, "SVhcn we feel our mortal weakness. When the creature's help is vain, By Thy mercy, O deliver us, good Lord. 4 O, Lord of heaven and earth and sea. To Thee aU praise and glory be ; How shall we show our love to Thee, Giver of all ? MUSICAL THEORY. BOOK V. ELEMENTS OF HARMONY & CONSTRUCTION. Note. — The relation of this book to " How to Observe HaiTaony " and " Con- structiou Exercises " is as follows : — The present work is a dogmatic statement, brieflj put tog'ether, of the facts of Harmony. "How to Obsei-ve Harmony" is a more extended development of the same subject, setting- the pupil to obsei-ve and discover for himself what this book tells him. It also sug-gests many more ideas about Composition than can be introduced in a condensed summary like the present. " Con- struction Exercises" shows the practical working out of the pi-inoiples stated or observed in the other two books, and leads the pupU onwards to the combina.tion of Musical Form with Musical Composition. The present work only touches Composition as far as is necessary for the elementaiy exercises commonly required in the University Local Examinations. The self-teacher should not begin with this book, but with "How to Observe." Dogmatic statements are hard to master, and soon weary the elementary pupil. If, however, he can be made to understand tlie Thing first — if he has a master who can lead him to observe, to compare, and to deduce for himself, then a dogmatic summary to which he may refer as a text-book will pi-ove very useful. Such a living teacher is much better than the book " How to Observe," though hundreds of solitary students have been thankful for the book. I by no means recommend that the student should go through a whole course of Observation before he begins Composition. "We never properly understand a do-able thing until we begin to do it. It is better, therefore, to commence Construction exercises as soon as the th'st eight Steps in this book, or in " How to Observe," have been mastered. At the end of this work will be found in- structions and aids in preparing for public examinations. Exercises in Chord-naming may be found in " Chord-naming Examples," Parts A and B, which may precede the more thorough, complete, and musicianly exercises in " How to Observe Harmony," and which will enable yoimg students to observe and enjoy the progressions of ordinary psalmo'ly and simple part-songs.— J. C. FIRST STEP. Consonance. Major Chord,s. The Tonic, Dominant, and SUBDOMIXANT ChORD.S OF THE MaJOR MoDE. 155. Consonance. — A Consonance is "the pleasant sounding together " of two tones. In studying the structure of the Common S(^le, above, pp. 5 and 6, we found that the tones which sound best ioo-ether are those which stand at the following intervals — 1st, the Maior Thirds with their inversions the Minor Sixths, and their re-plications the Major Tenths (see p. 10, fig. 21) ; 2nd, the Minor Thirds with their inversions the Major Sixths, and their replica- tions the Minor Tenths (see p. 10, fig. 22) ; 3rd, the Perfect Fifths with their inversions the Perfect Fourths, and, their replications the Major Twelfths (see p. 10, fig. 25). In addition to these there 1275) 276 COKSOXANCES. IIAJOE COililOX CHOKD. are the Major Thirteenth, a replication of the Major Sixth (p. 10, fig. 27)— the Minor Thirteenth, a replication of the Minor Sixth (p. 10, fig. 28)— and the Eleventh, a replication of the Perfect Fourth (p. 10, fig. 23). The Octave is a simple replication of tone. between B. and C, a Twelfth ; between B. and S., a Double Octave or Fifteenth. The interval between T. and C. is a Minor Third ; between T. and S., a Minor Sixth ; and between C. and S., a Perfect Fourth. Although the relation of tones to the key is the principal thing to be attended to in Harmony, it is a valuable exercise for the pupil to school himself in "the nam- ing of intervals." 1556. Examples.— Thus in Ex. 3, first pulse, the interval between B. ana T. is a Major Third, between B. and C. (re- membering the Tonic Sol-fa way of writ- ing octave marks, p. 24), an Octave ; between B. and S., a Twelfth. The in- terval between T. and C. is a Minor Sixth ; between T. and S., a Minor Tenth ; and between C. and S., a Perfect Fifth. In the second pulse of the same Ex., the interval between B. and T. is a Tenth; 156. Mental Effects of Consonances.— Studying the effect on the mind of these Consonances, we call the Thirds (with their inversions and replications) Sweet — the Major Thirds sweeter than the Minor — the Fifths Firm, and the Fourths Negative. See above, p. 6, and " Musical Statics," pp. 15, 16. The Thirds are the source of sweetness in Harmony, and the Fifths are the source of strength. Inversion and Replication modify these effects. The closer the interval, the more strongly is the char- acteristic effect felt ; the wider the interval, the less easily is the relation of its tones perceived. 157. Major Common Chords— their Normal State.— A Chord consists of two or more consonances heard at the same time. The pleasantest combination of consonances is when two Thirds, one Major and the other Minor, are placed one over the other, making the interval from the lowest tone to the highest a Fifth. This is called a Common Chord. It contains two sweet Thirds, and a firm, binding Fifth. Of common chords, the pleasantest are those in which the Major Third is below and the Minor Third above, thus — KEY F. ESAMPLB 1. :s 1 ( :d' I :r :^ ! :1 :t :d , ( :f 1 \:s 1^1 These are called Major Common Chords, or Major Chords. There are three such Chords in the Common Scale ; one on d, consisting of d n S ; one on f , consisting of f 1 d' ; and one on s, consisting of s t r'. AYhen common chords are placed in this close position, as two adjacent Thirds, they are said to be in their Nortnal State, 1576. Statics. — "We learn from " Musi- cal Statics " that while the vibrations of the lowest tone of a Major common chord in its normal state are tapping on the ear four times, those of the tone above are "apping five time.s, and those of the highest tone are tapping six times. As in the structure of the Scale (see above, p. 6J so in that of the chord, it is interest- ing to notice how the simplest relations are the best. 157c. Triad.— This word " Triad," or sf-t of three tones, is sometimes used in- stead of common chord. DISTRIBUTIONS OF CHORDS. ROOT, THIRD, AND FIFTH. 277 158. Naming of Chords.— We name chords by the tone which stands at the bottom in their "normal state." We indicate chord names by capital letters. Thus we have, founded on the common scale, three Major chords — the chord of D, the chord of F, and the chord of S. 159. Distribution of Chords.— The tones of a chord in its "normal" state may be moved to different octaves. In other words, the intervals may be " inverted " or " replicated " (see above, p. 10), thus — Ex. 2. s Pi' m K ZY F. d' f d PI s d 1 d f rt d s, f 1, 1 - The intervals by which a chord is thus sjyread out we proiDOse to call its Distributions. We indicate the distributions by naming the intervals upward. Thus the first, fourth, and seventh chords above have the distribution " third-third," the second and eighth have the distribution " fifth-sixth," the third has the distribution " fourth-third," the fifth and ninth have the distribution " third- fourth, the sixth has the distribution " sixth-fifth." The change of distribution does not change the name of the chord. 159J. sStntics.— The effect of these dis- tributions is not to create new relations in the chord, but only to modify existing ones by doubling or halving the \'ibrations of diiferent tones. Thus, the distribution " thu'd-third " in a Major chord has the relation of "four to five to six," and that of " fifth-sixth " has the relation of "four to six to ten." The distribution "fourth- third " has the relation of " three to four to five." The distribution " sixth-fifth " has the relation of " two and a half to four to six," or, in other words, "five to eight to twelve " instead of " eight to teti to twelve." 159c. Distribution/or Voices. — In writing for voices it is important to let the chord be well distributed over the vocal region in what is called " dispersed harmony." When the Ba.ss is low, it is better to let the largest interval of the chord be at the bottom. In pianoforte music it is com- monly convenient to let the Bass stand alone, and to crowd the rest of the chord in the right-hand into what is called "close harmony." A Third low in pitch does not soimd well for voices, and sounds very badly on the harmonium. Only when the Bass is high in pitch should the Tenor be allowed to run in Thirds with it. Care must also be taken to keep well within the proper range of the voices. See above, p. 22. Study the disti'ibution of vocal parts, above, pp. 80 to 85. 160. Root, Third, Fifth. — The tone which stands lowest in the " normal state " of a chord is called its Root ; that which stands a Third above the Root is called its Third ; and that which stands a fifth above is called its Fifth. Thtts the Root of the chord D is d, its Third is n, and its Fifth is s. The Root of F is f, its Third 1, its Fifth d'. The Root of S is s, its Third t, its Fifth r'. We retain these names (Root, Thu-d, Fifth) even when the intervals are changed by Distribution. 160^. Hoot. — The word Root is here g^iven in its commonest and simplest ac- ceptation. It thus indicates a real Root — a Root which is heard. But theorists, who build, not on the philosophy of fact, but on that of imagination, have much 8,bused this word Root. They fii'st feel them- selves obliged to find for every sort of chord, and even for eveiy discord, a Root, and then they are obliged to go into the 278 CONSTITUTIONS. TONIC, DOMINANT, SUBDOMINANT. re^on of imagination (often beautiful i on this subject in "Teacher's Manual," and interesting- imagination) in order to pp. 2.31 to 235. T^e shall explain these discover such Eoots. Some have gone so theories below -svhenever it is necessary, in far as to maintain that certain chords order to help pupils who have to go up grow up from two Roots ! See a discussion for public examinations. 161. Constitution of Chords.— The tones of chords may be doubled or omitted. The manner in which this is done we call the Constitution of a Chord. See " How to Observe," p. 43. We name the different constitutions as follows : — Const. 1. A complete chord (that is, without omissions), and often with the Root doubled. „ 2. A chord with trehled Root, and often omitted Fifth. ,, 3. ,, „ omitted Third. „ 4. „ „ doubled Third. „ 5. „ „ omitted Fifth. „ 6. ,, „ doubled Fifth. „ om. „ „ omitted Root. The Boot of a chord is its most important constituent — its vital element. It is never omitted except in places where, through the habits of the ear, it must be expected and felt even without its being sounded. But its doubling and even trebling is always welcome to the ear. The Third is so essential to the character of the chord that it is rarely omitted, and so sweet that, in a Major chord, it is very rarely doubled. The Fifth is so lihe the Root — so much a part of it — that it may be either doubled or omitted without attracting much notice. Thus it is that Con- stitution 1 is the best, 2 is very good, 3 and 4 are to be employed only where there is a good excuse, and 5 and 6 are very good. For purposes of analysis, the constitutions of chords can be marked by figures after the chord names, as in Ex. 4, p. 287, below. nant Seventh), but not in cadences, and must be omitted in *S (the discord of the Fourth on the Dominant) ; that the Third cannot be douhled in S, but may be doubled freely in E, M, L, T ; that it is sometimes (though rarely) doubled in D and F when the Soot is in the Bass, but not on a final cadence chord ; and that in other cases of D and F the doubled Third never appears without the apology that it is helping to create Contrary Motion cf the parts. IGlft. Illustrations. — ^In Ex. 3 all the chords have Const. 1. In Ex. 4, the second chord has Const. 6, and the fourth Const. 2 and 5. See this subject more fully illustrated in "How to Observe," p. 44, and " Construction Exercises," pp. G, 11, 28. 161c. Sule of the Third.— The student of Composition will afterwards learn that the Third mat/ be omitted in ^S (the Domi- 162. Tonic, Dominant, and Subdominant.— The first ac- cented consonant chord which strikes the ear in a tune naturally produces a strong impression, and the chords which follow are compared with it. We may think of it as the " chord of first impression," or the " pre-occupying chord." It is commonly BONDING OF CnOHDS. PROGRESSION OF DOMINANT. 279 called the Tonic chord. Tt is more used than any other chord throughout the tunc, and is always the last chord. Two other chords are its constant attendants. One having its Root on the Fifth above the Eoot of the Tonic, and this is called the Dominant chord ; the other having its Root a Fifth below the Root of the Tonic, and this is called the Subdoniinant Chord. In the Major Mode, the Tonic is D, the Dominant is S, and the Subdominant is F. The Tonic, Dominant, and Subdominant are the principal chords of a tune. See fuller explanations in '' How to Observe," p. 3, and " Musical Statics," pp. 76 and 77. 163. Bonding of Chords.— We feci that chords belong to one another when a tone of one chord is carried over into the next, and this is called a direct bo7id ; or when a tone of one chord is heard in the next, though in another part, and this is called an indirect bond. The chords of D and S are bonded by Root and Fifth. So also are the chords D and F. No stronger bonds could be. But the chords S and F have no bond, direct or in- direct. They are independent of each other, and yet they are both strongly bonded to D. This peculiar relation may be called an implied bond. Those progressions of chords are the best in which the strongest bonds occur. 1635. Examples. — Thus, in Ex. 3, the I the second and third by d, and the tliird lirst and second chords arc bonded by d, \ and fourth by s. 164. Progression of the Dominant Chord.— The ear is always best satisfied when the chords flow one into the other as smoothly (that is, with as little motion of the pai'ts) as possible. The chord S (the Dominant of the Major Mode) rarely flows into any other chord than that of D. Its s either moves to d or is continued as a bond, its t always moves to d', as would be expected from its mental effect. Its r rises to n, or if doubled, one r may fall to d. Exceptionally, its s moves to n, but this progression makes an ungainly melody, and it is seldom used unless there are two s's, one of which is more smoothly resolved, or some other melodic apology is found. See " How to Observe," p. 15. Note also that when there are two S chords, the t of the first chord need not be continued into the next, but it may move freely to s or to r pro- viding that the t in the next chord has its proper progression. In old music, but only in an inner part, t is allowed to go dotvn to s when the Bass rises — so giving the apology of contrary motion. In modern music the t may go higher than the d' when not in a full close and not in the Dominant Seventh chord, — but its melody must afterwards come down, thus t n' d' or t f n' or t n' r'. For the exceptional resolution of S into other chords nee below, p^ 305. 280 DISSONANCE. PROF. UELMHOLTZ. DR. 8TA1NKH. 165. The Mental Effects of Chords.— The Major chordu have the mental effects proper to their Roots. See above, p. 19, Thus D is called the Firm Chord or the Chord of Rest, S is called the Bright Chord or Chord of Motion, and F is called tb'» Awe-inspiring or Serious Chord. Ex. 3. KET F. :r SECOND STEP. Dissonance. The Dominant Seventh of tue Major Mode. The Tonic Cadence. 166. Dissonance. — A Dissonance is the "unpleasant sound- ing together " of two tones. The source of all dissonance is the interval of a Second (see above, p. 10), and the Minor Second is more dissonant than the Major Second. Thus, s dissonatcs against f, d against r, r against pi, 1 against t, and s against 1 ; but a worse dissonance is n against f, or t against d'. In all these cases, a rough beating together or " mutual interference " of the tones is heard, and this is called Dissonance. 1666. HdmhoUz. — Professor Hehnholtz, in his great ■work on "The Sensations of Musical Tone," has shown the scientific basis of masic. To him is due this modem doctrine of Dissonance and Consonance. These principles are developed in " Con- struction Exercises," pp. 133 to 150; "Statics," pp. 50 to 73 ; and "How to ObseiTe," pp. 90 to 110, — but Professor Helmholtz is not responsible for the mode in which his scientific discoveries have been applied to musical theory and practice. Until he gave certainty to our thinking on this subject, writers on music differed much from each other in their definition of Consonance and Dissonance. They sometimes called the Third an "imper- fect" consonance. Their 0"sti ears might have told them diflPerently, but they were bound by old theories. It is now gener- ally acknowledged that in respect of per- fcctntss of accord with the Tonic, the Octave is first, the Fifth next, and the Fourth next to it ; but for rich and beau- tiful effect the Thuds far excel them. Variety or Divergence as well as Unity is needed for these pleasant effects. In the Major Third there is the most perfect balance of these two qualities. In the Minor Third there is just a Little too much variety, and when we come much closer than the Minor Third Dissonance begins. The Seconds form a decided Dissonance. But when the interval grows considerably less than a Minor Second, the Dissonance disappears, and the two tones are heard only as one somewhat piercing tone like that of the Celeste stop on the Harmonium. For fuller explanations, see " Musical Statics," p. 50. 166c. Dissonance and Discord. — A dis- tinction should be made between these two. A Discord is a chord with a dis- sonance introduced into it. In this case the pleasantness of the chord greatly overbalances the vmpleasantness of the dissonance. This enables Dr. Stainer to say, "A discord should not be looked upon as something unpleasant — quite the re- verse ; it only differs from a concord by its lack of finality. It requires to be fol. lowed by another chord." DEGREES OF DISSONANCE. KLANG OF PARTIALS. 281 167. Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Degrees of Dis- sonance.— When tones which stand next to one another in the scale are separated by inversion or replication, their dissonance becomes less in proportion to the distance they are moved. Thus d against r' and d against r|, are not such strong dissonances as d against r ; and d against r- or r, are not such strong dissonances as d against r' or r|. Thus also f against s or f against s' do not dissonate so much as f against s ; and f ' against S| does not dissonate so much as f ' against s. When the dissonance is close, as.rragainst f, or s against 1, we call it a Primary dissonance. When the Second is changed to a Seventh or a Ninth, we call it a Secondary dissonance. When the Second becomes a Four- teenth or a Sixteenth we call it a Tertiary dissonance. 1676. Eelmholtz. — This distinction of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary dis- sonance is very easily recognized by the ear, and has important consequences in Composition. It spring's naturally from the doctrines taught by Prof. Helraholtz. But to understand the subject of dis- sonance properly, it is necessary to under- stand something of the " Klang of Par- tials." 168. The Klang of Partials.— The tones produced by most instruments, especially by those which are decidedly rich or harsh in quality, are not simple but compound tones. Along with the Primary tone, certain oiher tones sound, which are not loud enough to be heard separately, but are loud enough to colour the quality of the original tone — that is, to make it " rich " or "brilliant" or "wiry" or "harsh." These tones are called by Prof. Helmholtz " partial tones," because they form j)arts of the original tone. 168i. Explanation. — The Primary tone itself is called the first partial ; the second partial is the Octave above ; the third is the Octave Fifth ; the f oiu-th is the Double Octave ; the fifth is the Double Octave Third ; the sixth is the Double Octave Fifth ; the seventh is a little flatter than the Double Octave Flat Seventh ; the eighth is the Treble Octave ; the ninth is the Treble Octave Second ; and the tenth is the Treble Octave Third ; the eleventh is much sharper than the Treble Octave Fourth. The thirteenth, fourteenth, sev- enteenth, and nineteenth are also out of tune with the scale. Thus, if d is the primary, the Ilnd partial of its klang will be d', the Ilird s', and so on. If t is the primai-y or 1st partial, (' will be the Ilnd./e'* will be the Illrd. See the dia- gram, p. 2S3. The higher partials can seldom be dis- tinguished except in very harsh instru- ments. The Xth, however, may be heard in a loud violoncello tone just as the tone is dying away. It is important to notice that in an average tone of good quality the Ilnd par- tial has only 25 per c?nt. of the loudness of the primary ; and that the loudness of the partials dies away, so that when we come to the Vlth it has only 3 per cent, of loudness, and when we i-each the Xth it has only 1 per cent. When the highel partials (which lie close to one another and dissonate) predominate in number and loudness, the quality of the tone is Harsh. When the first six or seven par- tials are principally heard, as in the tones of a violin or good human voice, the quality is Eich. When scarcely any par- tials are heard, or only the Ilnd and mrd, the tone is Dull. The sounding together of a primary tone with its par- tials is called the " klang of the partials." IBSc. The Mis-named Harmonic Chord, — It has been seen — 1st, that the " klang of partials" has for its object the pro- ducing of different qualities of tones ; 2nd, that the partials are not independent tones, but essentially ;)«)■<« of a particular tone, produced with it and ceasing at the same time ; and 3rd, that they are not co-eqnal in loudness like the tones of a chord, but that they die away very rapidly. Nevertheless, since the time of 282 LOUDITESS OF PAETIALS. PARTIAL DISSONANCE. LiO^er, many musical theorists have tried to discover the principles of Harmony in this " klang of partials." They call it "Natme's Chord" and the " HaiTQonic Chord." But by a chord we understand the sounding together of tones which are independent and co-equal, which these are not. He who believes that Nature has really dictated chords and discords in this " klang of partials," is bound to take the whole or none ; and this no one ventures to do ; for the klang of partials would be imbeai-able if they did not die away in strength as they ascend in pitch very much more rapidly than independent and co-equal tones do. 16Sd. The Series of Harmonics. — A dif- ferent set of phenomena from that of the partials is that of the artificial hannonies or harmonics properly so called. They are produced on the comet or trumpet by blowing louder and louder, and on stringed instruments by touching the vi- brating string at one half of its length, at one third, one fourth, one fifth, and so on. They follow the same order of in- tervals as the partials. But they are independent and co-equal tones. Ther can be sounded one after the other, but cannot be sounded together. These har- monics, therefore, never make a cherd. But the same principles of relationship in vibrations which cause the partials and cause the harmonics, are also found in the structure of chords. Especially in- teresting to the student of the constitu- tion of chords, are the first six partials, before the partials begin to leave the scale, and while there is yet some force in them. If these are soimded as co- equal tones, we have a major chord with trebled root, doubled fifth, and rmdoubled third. It may also be noticed that in such a chord the Bass stands more apart than the other parts from one another, and this is generally the case, especially in compositions for instruments with strong partials like the Harmonium. Thus far the "klang of partials" and series of harmonics " are interesting. They confirm the principles to which ex- perience leads us in the study of real chords. See further on this subject in " Musical Statics," p. 41, and "Teachei-'s Manual," p. 2»4. AVEEAGE LOUDNESS OF PAETIALS, SHOAVN BY LENGTH OF LINE. vn — VI _ V __ rv .^_ in 169. Partial Dissonance. — The early partials, especially of a tone low in pitch, though unnoticed when their primaries alone are sounding, become very noticeable when they dissonate against another primary, or against another early partial. This kind of dissonance we call Partial Dissonance. It is worst when an early partial dissonates against a primary; it is very rough when a second partial dissonates against a third, but somewhat less so when a third partial dissonates against a fourth, and so on. In what we have called Secondary and Tertiary dissonance, the beating is that of an early partial, generally the Ilnd or Ilird against a Primary. Thus, in d against r' the "beating" is that of the Ilnd jiartial of d for d') against the r', and in d against r* the beating is that of the IVth partial of d (or d") against r-, and these partials of d might have remained unheard, while d alone was sounded, but they come out with unmistakeable roughness when they find a tone against which to dissonate. THE PARTIALS OF d, 1', H, f, S, ETC. 283 PRIMARY TONES WITH THEIR PARTIALS ABOVE. p,3 J.3 IU3 d»3 m3 d^ r^ m3 do3 ro^ t- ta" t^ t^ t- P s^ 1» fe- se- r- f- 8- I- fe^ r? m- m^ m2 r^ r^ 1-2 d^ d- (P t' t' t' 1' 1' 1' si s- s' fi f n' m' r' l' d' t d' t 1 1 s s f f n n r r d d 284 t| AGAixsT f OK sei AG. rah, and f ag. t ob rah aq. «e. 1696. Illustrations.— The partials are of importance according to their loud- ness. This differs to some extent in different instruments, but it should be remembered 1st, that the earb/ partials are very much louder than the others, and, 2nd, that the partials of a low tone (as of the Bass) are louder than those of a high tone, because low tones are gener- ally louder than high ones, and are, from their position, more likely to throw up in- terfering partials among the higher tones. Even a major third very low down in pitch, and on an instrument with strong partials, like the Harmonium, has a decided rough- ness, because the TTTrd partial of its upper tone dissonates against the IVth of its lower tone, while if a major third is struck in the higher part of the instru- ment, the TTTrfl and I\'th partials are so light as not to be heard, and even in the middle part of the instrument they ajS not sufficiently strong to interfere witJi the "sweetness" of the interval. In thd interval of a fourth, the partial disso. nance comes out so strongly, that it ia heard even when the fourth is taken in the middle range of pitch, and is much more marked when the fourth is between the bass and tenor. This dissonance is one of II against m. These, and many other cases of partial dissonance, may be easily traced on the diagram, p. 283. We know that the dissonance in these cases is not between the principal tones, but is caused by the partials, because in dull-toned instruments (like the flute and stopped organ pipe) with very slight partials, or without any, secondary and tertiary dissonance is scarcely distinguish- able, while the rough beating of primary dissonance is well heard. 170. The Imperfect Fifth and Pluperfect Fourth.— The dissonance of f against t (the Fourth against the Seventh of the scale), whether the t is above the f or the f above the t, is a very peculiar and piquant one. This partly arises from the contrary tendency of the two tones, the one moving upward, the other downward. But it is chiefly caused by the " partial dis- sonance." When the two tones stand as closely together as they can, the dissonance is that of Partial II against Partial III. If one of them is moved an Octave, the dissonance is that of Til against I — a partial against a primaiy. The dissonance of se against r (the Sharp Seventh against the Fourth) in the Minor Mode corresponds with that of t against f in the JIajor Mode. Although other intervals have partial dissonance besides these of the Pluperfect Fourth (or Tritone, see above, pp. 9, 11), and Imperfect Fifth, these intervals stand apart, both because of the mental effect of their tones, and because their partial dissonance is that of a little step, and therefore more effective. We, there- fore, rank these intervals among the Dissonances, along with the Seconds, Sevenths, Ninths, Fourteenths, and Sixteenths. 171. Percussion, its Dissonating and Resisting Tones.- When a dissonance is introduced into an otherwise consonant chord, that tone of the two which forms part of the consonant chord, we call the Resisting-tone, and the other the Dissonating- tone, or we may call the one the Chord tone, and the other the Foreign tone. The percussion is the stroke or beating of the dissonating-tone against the resisting-tone. 172. Resolution.— Dissonance excites a sense of dissatisfac- tion, and a desire for something better. Dissonance suggests Motion, and Consonance Rest. Therefore, every " dissonating tone " must move onward to a coasonance. In token of sub- DELATED TEANSFEBRED - INTEKRUPIED. PREPAEAIION. 285 mission it nearly always moves downward, and to show ita connection with the dissonance it moves only one step. This movement of a dissonating tone into consonance is called its Resolution. 1726. ^V}lich should liesolvel — When we hear two dissonant tones together, apart from anything going before or coming after, and apart from any chord to which they might belong, there is nothing to tell us which is the dissonating tone, or how it should be resolved. V/Ticn, however, an examiner asks us to resolve the dis- sonance d with r above, we suppose he is thinking of the discord ■*S, in which d is the dissonance, and we make the resolu- tion «, with r above it. When he asks us to resolve S[ with /above, we suppose he is thinking of 'S, and we make the reso- lution d with m above it. Wlien he asks us to resolve «, with /above it, we suppose he is thinking of 'S or T, and make the resolution d with m above. 172c. Delayed liesolution .—The resolu- tion of a dissonance is commonly im- mediate within the same chord, or on the next chord. But it is sometimes delayed, the dissonance being earned on through a chord or two as a consonance, and then finding its habitual resolution on tlie chord which follows. See below, Ex. 149. 172(;. Transferred Besolution.--'Whena, dissonance is struck on the sti-ong pulse, it is sometimes struck again on the weak pulse, but in another part, and the reso- lution occurs in this last part, not in that in which the dissonance first appeared. This we call Transferred Resolution. See especially Dominant Seventh, Ex. 209 172e. Interrupted Resolution. — Occasion- ally another tone of the same chord in- tervenes between a Dissonance and ita Resolution. This "interruption" gener- ally occurs on the less noticed weak pulse. See " How to Observe Harmony," il. 204. 178. Preparation. — A dissonating tone meets the ear with less surprise when it is simply carried over from a previous chord in which it has been consonant. This is called its Pre])aration. It might be called its Apology. Another apology for a dissonat- ing tone, though not so acceptable to the ear, is that it seems to come down from the tone above, which has appeared in the previous chord as a consonance. The one sort of preparation we call Horizontal, the other Oblique. A dissonance which enters the chord without (or with only oblique) preparation should seldom be Primary, and should be otherwise of a good quality. 1736. Analysis. — In writing Harmony Analysis, we place a small letter h under the cTiord name when we wish to indicate that a full-pulse dissonance is horizontally prepared, and a .small letter o when we wish to show that it is obliquely prepared. An unprepared dissonance is marked u. 174. The Bonding Power of Dissonance.— A dissonance attracts the attention of the ear, and the " jaath of a dissonance," like the path of a comet, is instinctively noticed. Hence it is that a dissonance acts like a bond between chords. This is felt when two chords are bonded by Percussion and Resolution, but much more so when three chords are bonded by the clearly- marked path of Preoaratiou, Percussion, and Pesolution. See below, Dominant Seventh, p. 286, and Seventh on the Supertonic, p. 300. 286 THE DOMINANT SEVENTH ITS PROGEESSION. 175. Place of the Dissonance.— A dissonance may intrude itself into a consonant chord close under the Root, or the octave of the Root, in which case it is called a Seventh ; close under the Third, or the octave of the Third, in which case it is called a Second or a Kinth ; or close under the Fifth, or the octave of the Fifth, in which case it is called a Fourth. Of other dissonances we need not speak here. The Sevenths and Fourths ai-e chiefly used because they have firmer resisting tones. But a more important question in the placing of a dissonance is, " What resolution can it get ? " And those dissonances are preferred (that is, most used) which obtain a resolution on the Tonic or on the Dominant. See this subject fully treated in " How to Observe," pp. 90 to 95. See also below, 176. The Dominant Seventh. — The best dissonance— that which has the best resisting tone, the Root, and that which has the best resolution, the Tonic chord — is the Seventh on the Dominant ; that is, f against s in the Major Mode, and r against n in the Minor Mode. At present we shall speak only of the Major Mode, in which this chord is called seven-soh, and marked 'S. Much piquancy is added to this chord by the "partial dis- sonance " of t against f in the Major Mode, and se against r in the Minor Mode. Notwithstanding this added dissonance, its good resisting tone and its good resolution make this the most freely used of all the discords. The dissonance has commonly only the Oblique preparation, and very frequently no preparation at all. In Ex. 4 there are two cases of this chord. First, it appears in its commonest form, obliquely prepared and on a weak pulse ; and second, it appears unprepared and on a strong pulse. 177. Progression of the Dominant Seventh,— The reso- lution of this chord is like that of the Dominant (above, p. 279) ; but as the dissonating f is obliged to resolve itself on n, and we wish to avoid a double Third, the r must not rise to n. It nuxKt either fall to d or be omitted. The chord ''Sc allows its f, instead of resolving on n, to ascend to s, when the r in the bass rises to n. When this is done, it is intended to avoid the doubling of the n in the next chord. See " Construction Exercises," p. 16. Let it be noted that in a progression of the Dominant to the Tonic, unless other circumstances decide the case, there is nothing to prove that the first chord is not a Tonic and the seconda Sub- dominant, — that the progression S to D may not be translated as D to F ; but in a progression of the Dominant Seventh to the Tonic there can be no " ambiguity of kej'," because the Dominant Seventh contains either the Tritone or the Diminished Fifth- intervals of which only one exists in each scale. See above, p. 7, par. 11. APPROACH TO TUE TONIC CADENCE. 287 178. The Tonic Cadence.— The progression of the Donii- uaufc or the Dominant Seventh to the Tonic chord gives a sense of completeness and conclusiveness to the ear, which makes it suitable for the close of what may be called a musical line. This progression is so conclusive that it is seldom employed in its strongest form (that is, with the Eoots of both chords in the Bass) anywhere else but in a cadence. We call this cadence " Perfect " when d itself is in the IBass of the D chord, but ifc does not produce so conclusive an effect on the ear when pi or s instead of d are in the highest part of this chord. We then call the cadence an " open " one. [On the whole subject of cadences, see Book III, above, p. 92, and " Musical Statics," p. 83.] Ex. 4. KEY D. .d' s :f n d f :f m m PI :r d d t, :t, d s s :t d' m r :s G d d :S| Dl,6 'SI d D2,5 d s, ;s, 'SI 'S5 d 179. Approach to Tonic Cadence.— The sense of conclusive- ness in the Tonic Cadence is very much increased if the Sub dominant chord is used in the approach to it. There is no " bond " between the chords of Subdomiuant and Dominant, — that is, F and S in the Major Mode, E and sejf in the Minor Mode. But in the close of a line it is important that the whole key should be felt by the ear, and in this case the chord of the TJuderfifth often comes in close contact with that of the Overfifth in their approach to the Tonic. The Subdominant and Dominant thus come, like two subordinate rulers from opposite parts of the Empire, to do homage to their sovereign. See Ex. 6. Ex. 5. KEV D. m f :r m s 1 t d' d d :t, d m f f m s 1 ;s s d' d' s s d f, :s, d d f s d i '8 ITflA. Broken Chni-ds. — 111 music for in- struments, especially those ^vhich are struck or plucked like the pianoforte, harp, &c., which make up by their ra- pidity for their want of fulness of tone, the chords, instead of having' their tones straight one above the other, are broken and distributed over a whole measui'e or part of a measure. See above, p. 115. In analysing the hannony of such chords the distributed tones — the pieces of the r f T- r I. I I I •— r* — •— r*- broken chord — should be pushed together ag-ainst the beginning of the measure or half measure. Thus, in Ex. fi, the chord of the fu'st measure is D, and the second and fourth pulses are not Ttb, because, the ear in this rapid music still feels tlie Root of the chord which has just been struck. In Ex. 7, for the same reason, the chord 'Sa and not SJ wiU be heard in the third pulse of the second measure. Ex. 6 shows what is called the Ehythmical 288 BROKEN CHORDS. POSITIONS. INVKRSIONa. Cliordal style ; Ex. 7, the Arpeggio. Notice in the last how the first pulses of pach measure seem to make the melody of the accompaniment nii/i toi. the thiH pulses d t, d, and the second pulsea con tinue the s, . Ex. 6. KEY G. d ;d |m is .d :d.d I .d :d.d .S|:S|.S|| .S|:3,.s .I'll inii.C!, I .PiitPii.ci Ex. 7. KEY D. Voice. f :f \m : — .t,:t,.t,|d : — .s,:S|.s,|S| : — .r,:r,.r,m, : — Id, :~ m :s :n r :f :r d : — m, :s, :d f, :S| :t, m, :.S| :d d : — 3, : — d : — I J jj. I l-i I JW. THIRD STEP. Positions of Chords. Effects of Positions. Apologies for Inverted Positions. ISO. Positions of Chords. — Very much of the efPect of a chord depends upon the tone which is placed in the Bass, partly because the Bass is, next to the highest part, the most important part in a tune, and partly for other reasons which Philosophy explains to us. AYhen the Root is in the Bass we say the chord is in its a position, which we indicate (when necessary) thus, Da or Fa or Sa. When the Third is in the Bass, we say the chord is in its h position, which we indicate thus, D6, Fb, Sb. When the Fifth is in the Bass, we say that the chord is in its c position, which we indicate thus, Dc, Fc, Sc. When the dissonating Seventh is in the Bass we, in the same way, mark the chord as in the d position, and when any other dissonance is in the Bass, as in the e position. When a chord name is not followed by either of these letters, the chord is understood to be in the a position. The " normal state " (above, p. 276) is a close a position. In Exs. 8 and 9 we have cases of Dc, Db, and Ffe. 1806. Inversions.— The positions b, c, I second, and d the third. For the use of ffnd d are sometimes called Inversions. the word "position," see below," p. 291. Thus, b would be the first inversion, c the | 181. Effect of Positions.— In Major chords the a position is acknowledged to be by far the most effective. In its closest form it is composed of two sweet Thirds and one binding Fifth, EXCUSES FOE THE INVERTED POSITIONS 289 lb is clear, strong, and full. The b position is not so " sonorous." In its closest form it has only one sweet Third and a negative Fourth. The c position is decidedly unsonorous. In its closest form it has the negative Fourth starting from the Bass itself. 1815. Statics. — It may be ssen from the diagram, p. 283, that when d is in the Bass of the D chord (and we take this as an example of the a position of other Major eliords) its first six partials can do nothing but fall in with the higher tones of the chord and strengthen them ; that when TO is in the Bass, its third partial would dissonate against d in the second octave above it, and its fifth partial against s in the third octave ; and that when i is in the Bass, its third partial would dissonate against both d and m in the second octave above, and its fifth partial strongly against d in the third octave. Moreover, this c position often has a Fourth between Bass and Tenor, which produces other partial dissonance (see above, p. 283). For other reasons which lead composers to use the b and c positions o?ily where there is some special excuse for them, see "Musical Statics," pp. 18, 39, 45, 47. 182. Apologies for the c Position. —The commonest use of the c position in Major chords is that of Dc in the approach to Tonic Cadences. It has the apology that it allows the Bass to move smoothly into the Dominant chord, that it prepares the ear, by its Bass tone, for that Dominant, and that it is often employed between the Subdominant and the Dominant as an implied bond. But so much like a dissonance is this felt to be that its d is often prepared and resolved. From Dc the Bass tone s generally moves thus | s : S but it sometimes moves thus | s : f and it can move thus |s :1. The c position is also much used in the chord of S or ''S, giving r in the Bass when the Bass moves pi r d or d r n, and in the chord of F, giving d in the Bass, when the Bass moves d d d. This sense of dissonance in the c position leads composers to give its Bass tone a sort of " resolution," either by its continuance or by its moving stepwise into the next chord. The Bass never leajps from a c position except to another tone of the same chord. Two consecutive c positions sound very harshly to the ear. Hence it is that a c position cannot be approached by another c position. It can be approached stepwise from the a and h posi- tions of another chord, and hy leap from the a and h positions of its own chord, and from the a position of another chord. 183. Reasons for h Positions.—The h position is not nearly so unsonorous as the c position, and is freely used whenever it can help to make a smoother Bass, and especially when it promotes Contrary Motion with any of the other parts. [For Contrary Motion, see Book III, above, p. 97.] It has not the restrictions which attach to the c position, and two or more 6 positions are frequently heard consecutively. u 290 FIGXJEED BASSES. THE CROWNING OF CHORDS. 1834. Fundamental Ba,ss.— Some of the old teachers required their pupUs to •nrite underneath the proper sounding Bass, ■which might be in the 6, c, or d positions, a distinct stave -with the " Root" of each chord. This -was called a Fundamental Bass. The -words " Fundamental Chord " are sometimes used for a chord in the a position. ISSc. Figured Basses. — The old plan of indicating' the chords -without -wrinng them in full -was that of placing figures over or under the Bass part. The chord to be indicated -was first placed in its closest position, and then the intervals of each tone, beginning -with the highest, -were counted from the Bass. In reading ■the result -we read downwards. The a position in its closest form has one tone a Fifth from the Bass, another a Third from the Bass, and this -would be called the " chord of 5, 3, -which would be -written as in Exs. 8 and 9. Except for some special reasons, however (see question 39 at close) the 5,3 is not -written in full ; the 3 being sufficient (as in Exs. 8 and 9), and it is quite usual to omit the figures (as in Exs. 10 and 11) just as -we commonly omit the letter a in indicating the a position. The 6 position in its closest form has its highest tone a Sixth from the Bass, and its next a Third. It is, therefore, called the " chord of 6, 3," abbreviated "6." (SeeExs. 8, 9, 11). In the same way the c position in its closest form has its highest tone a Sixth from the Bass, and its next a Fourth. It is called the " chord of " 6,4, — the 6 being placed above and the 4 below. (See Ex. 8.) On the same plan (that is, counting from the Bass, and using for abbreviation only the characteristic figures) a discord of -the Seventh in the a position would be called " 8, 7, 5, 3," abbre-viated " 7 ;" the same in the 6 position, "6, 5, 3," abbre- viated " 6, 5 ;" the same in the c position "6, 4, 3," abbreviated "4, 3;" and the same in the d position "6,4, 2," ahbre- -viated " 4, 2." A discord of the Fourth in the a posi- tion would be called the " chord of 5, 4," abbre-viated " 4 ;" the same in the c posi- tion "7, 4," without abbreviation; the same in the e position " 5, 2." The Third is omitted in these discords, so that there is no 6 position. For the figuring of the doubled dissonances, and other paiticu- lars, see Ques. 42, 46, 48, 57, 58, 60, and 71. Those who may -wish to play from old scores, like many of Purcell's, in which the harmony is indicated only by means of figured Basses, should learn this sys- tem of notation. It also still lingers in some of the Government and University Examinations, but it is being gradually abandoned by the best teachers of Ger- many and England as an instrument for teaching Harmony. Weber, Schneider, Richter, and others, adopt plans similar to our o-wn, and Professor Macfarren sometimes uses, and always recommends, the a, J, c to indicate positions or inver- sions. The chief defect of the figured Basses, for teaching purposes, is that they do not promptly and directly indicate the Icey relation of their chord, which, especially in modem Harmony, is the most import- ant of its qualities. Thus, for example, a chord of 6, 4 may be on the Tonic, when (as -will be seen above) it commonly has one apology ; or on the Dominant, when it has another ; or on the Subdominant, -where its habits are again different. It is true that the chord relation may be found out by studying the Bass note, and looking before and after, but what we want for teaching purposes is a clear and direct indication of the principal thing. Hence it is that our Tonic Sol-fa students, when they go in for examinations in which the figured Basses are employed, always take a high place. They find that they possess an immense advantage in having had the use, while they were going through the process of' learning to under- stand Harmony and think about it, of a clear and definite notation. This nota- tion still remains t:heir thinking instrument, and enables them to handle figured Basses or any other complex and inefficient nota- tion of Harmony which may come in thekr way. 184. Crowning of Chords. — The effect of a chord depends much upon the tone -which is in the highest part. Next in importance to the question, " Which tone is in the Bass ? " conies the question, " "VYhich tone is in the air ? " When the Root is in the highest part, we say that the chord has its first crowning, which we indicate thus D^, E,l, &c., and call D-first, R-first, &c. When the Third is in the highest part, we say that the chord has its third ci'owning, which we indicate thus D^, R3, &c., and call D-third, E-third, &c. When the Fifth is in the highest part, APPROACn TO THU DOMINANT CADENCE. 291 we say that the chord has its fifth crowning, wnich we indicate thus D5, R5^ ^c., and call D-fifth, R-fifth, &c. These distinctions are especially valuable when we come to study the closes of musical lines. 1846. The Word "Position." — In some books the word "position" is used to indicate what tone is at the top or " crowning " of the chord, while in ethers it is used, as we use it, to intlicate what tone is at the bottom. We pre- ferred this latter use of the word, be- cause we required a set of names and signs which would include the fu-st posi- tion as well as the inversions. Dr. Day and Dr. Macfarren, without knowing- of our nomenclature, adopted the same plan. Dr. Hullah uses the term "position" in the sense in which we use the word "dis- tribution." Ex. 8. KEY F. Ex. 10. KEY G. d 1, f f, s f |m :r d A d Id :l, d s 1 |8 ;f m D6 f. 1^ Be 'S d Ex. 9. d :d KEY G. t, :- s, :f, s, :- m :f d :1, F6 r : — s, :- T r r I J^_^-i._J ^. m Ex. 11. KEY G. FOURTH STEP. The Cadence on the Dominant. Approaches to the Tonic AND Dominant Caj)ences. Weak-pulse Cadences. Consecutive Fifths and Octaves. Ill-appiioached Fifths and Octaves. False-relation. 185. Cadence on the Dominant. — The progression of Tonic to Dominant in the close of a line brings together the two chief chords of the mode, and so asserts the key, but places the " chord of motion " where the Tonic cadence placed the " chord of rest." It forms, therefore, a cadence of expectancy, and is very useful as a contrasting cadence with that on the Tonic. The " perfect S cadence " is sometimes entered by D6 instead of D. 186. Approaches to the Tonic and Dominant Cadences.— The composer looks beforehand, and always plans for his cadence, or we may say that having fixed his cadence, he looks back and 292 "WEAK-PULSE CADENCES. CONSECTTTIVB OCTAVES. sees how it may be approached. The cadence being that part of the music on which the ear naturally rests, is very smoothly and carefully approached, especially in the motion of the Bass, In approaching the Tonic cadence, F and Dc enables us to ha^e the Bass :f |S :s |d — Bb permits |n ;f |S :s |d, or :pi |f :s id J and the use of "Sc enables us to have the Bass |d :r in :f |s :s |d. The chord Fb gives us the Bass :1 |s :s |d. In approaching the Cadence on the Dominant, S6 or 'Sfe gives us the Bass |t| :d |S|, D6 supplies us with |d :n |S, this with Sc or ''Sc gives us :n ir :d |S. The chord F6 gives us 111 :d js,. 187. Weak-pulse Cadences. — These are cadences in which the last chord is on a weak pulse. They correspond with what in poetry is called a " double rhyme." The strong pulse just before them often has the semi-dissonant c position of the chord a Fifth below. Thus an accented Fc prepares the weak-pulse D cadence, and an accented Dc prepares the weak-pulse S cadence. Some- times decided dissonances are struck on the strong pulse and resolved on the weak. Occasionally the weak-pulse D cadence is prepared by S6 or ''S&. The medium-pulse cadence is of the same kind as the weak-pulse cadence, only it is expanded. The chord which prepares it occupies the strong and weak pulse, and the cadence is closed on the medium pulse. 188. Consecutive Octaves. — It is important that the "parts" or " voices " in music should be kept separate and distinct. When two parts coalesce in a unison or octave they are in danger of losing their individuality. This danger is increased when two such octaves or unisons occur consecutively. It is, therefore, necessary, as a general rule, that no two parts should move in octaves to the next chord. 1884. The "Doubling of Parts" is never- theless allowed by the ear in orchestral and pianoforte, and sometimes vocal com- positions, when one part runs with another in octaves or unison simply to strengthen it, and ha\Tng no pretensions to independ- ence. 188c. More noticealU are these "Oc- taves," and, therefore, worse in effect — 1st, when they occur between the extreme or outer parts ; 2nd, when the two parts have stepwise motion, there being no bond between the chords ; and 3rd, when one of the Octaves (especially when the second of them) is on a strong pulse. 188(i. Less noticealle are these "Oc- taves"— 1st, when they are between inner parts, or between an inner and an outer part ; 2nd, when the Octaves are in con- trary motion — that is, when one occurs as an Octave and the other as a Double Octave, or Fifteenth, especially when the chords are the Tonic with Dominant, or Subdominant, which have a strong " bond " between them ; 3rd, when in slow music, one Octave is at the end of one line or section and the other at the beginning of the next. 188«. The effect is removed when any consonance comes between " the Octaves," though it be only a " bye-tone " or " se- condary chord." See below, p. 306. But a dissonant stepwise "passing-tone" or "guiding-tone" (see below, p. 316) rather draws attention to the consecutives than lessens their effect ; and even the inter- position of a Horizontal Forestroke (see below, p. 316) only delays the effect of consecutives, does not obUterate them. HIDDEN" OCTAVES. CONSECUTIVE FIFTHS. 293 189. Ill-approached Octaves.— Even a single Octave or nuison between any two parts has a tendency to obliterate the idea of separateness of parts. There should, therefore, be some- thing in the motion of the parts to sustain that idea. When an Octave is approached by contrary or oblique motion, the very difference of motion in the two parts suggests the idea of separate- ness, and counteracts the " obliterating Octave." But when it is appi'oached by similar motion, the ear is generally puzzled, and unable to follow the parts. Such an Octave is called an ill- approached Octave. 189ft. Exception. — Even in similar mo- tion, however, when the upper part moves a little step or a step, while the other takes a great leap, as a Fourth or Fifth, the separateness of parts is stQl marked to the ear. A common illustration of this last case occurs in Tonic cadences where t goes to d\ and s\ to d. 190. Consecutive Fifths. — The Perfect Fifth stands next to the Octave in its blending power (see above, pp. 5, 6), and, there- fore, when two parts come together with only a Fifth between them there is something of the same tendency to coalescence and obliteration of parts. And to this is added a certain hardness of effect which makes it undesirable that there should be anything in the motion of the parts to attract attention to the Fifth. This effect is greatly increased Avhen there are two Fifths consecutively. It is true that cases may be shown in classic writers where the composer introduces consecutive Fifths in- tentionally for some harsh effect, just as violent unprepared discords are introduced. It is also true that in pianoforte music in which the tones are not continuous, but light and quick, consecutive Fifths and Octaves are sometimes found. But as a general rule, consecutive Fifths (between two parts and in two consecutive chords) which though they blend less than the Octave, are hard and staring in their effect, are carefully avoided in all good writing. 1906. Organ Stops. — This does not pre- vent the use of the stops called the Principal, Twelfth and Fifteenth (which give the Octave, Octave-fifth, and Douhle- octave of every tone) on the organ, or corresponding arrangements in an orches- tra ; tiecause these stops on the organ, or higher instruments in the band, only act as artificial harmonics or "partials," — that is, as a means of emiching and strengthening the quality of the tone. 190c. 3fore noticeable are these conse- cutive Fifths, and, therefore, worse in effect, like consecutive Octavos — 1st, when they occur between the extreme or outer parts; 2nd, when the two parts have stepwise motion, there being no bond between the chords ; and 3rd, when one of the Fifths (especially when the second of them) is on a strong pulse. 190i. Less noticeable are these conse- cutive Fifths, like consecutive Octaves— 1st, when they are between inner parts, oi between an inner and an outer part ; 2nd, when the Fifths are in contrary motion- that is, when one occurs as a Fifth and the other as an Octave-fifth or Twelftli. This is especially the case when the chords are the Tonic with Dominant and Sub- dominant, that is when the progression is otherwise very good, — the chords having a strong " bond " between them ; 3rd, when, in slow music, one Fifth is at the end of one line or section, and the other at the beginning of the next. 190«. 7%e effect is removed when any consonance comes between " the Fifths," though it be only a " bye-tone " or " se- condary-chord." See below, p. 306-7. But a dissonant stepwise "passing-tone" oi 294- "unequal" and "hidden'^ fifths, false relation. " guiding'-tone " (see below, p. 316) rather draws attention to the consecutives than lessens their effect; and even the inter- position of a Horizontal Forestroke {see below, p. 316) only delays the eifect of consecutives, does not obliterate them. 190/. Unequal Fifths. — Consecutive Fifths, one of which is Perfect and the other Imperfect, are called Unequal Fifths. The Imperfect Fifth can rarely ■precede the Perfect Fifth, because t, to/ or se to r' almost always form part of the Dominant Seventh chord, and the Seventh (/ or r) in that chord must nearly always go down. The exception is rn the case named above, p. 2b6 , when the Seventh is in the progression 7Sc Db or 75e j/c Lb. The Imperfect Fifth may follow the Per- fect Fifth (though not between the outer or extreme parts) without offending the ear, thus — KEY F. I s :f II M m :r |a:tJh!|l,seJ|#^^^gH But when the Imperfect Fifth is not a part of the Dominant Seventh, but Eoot and Fifth of the Minor Supertonic, it is not pleasant to hear it either preceding or following the Tonic, thus — KEY C. rim' :f' :ni' \\l :t :1 191 . Ill-approached Fifths.— Even a single Fifth between the outer parts has a partially obliterating and manifestly harden- ing effect. There should, therefore, be something in the motion of the parts not only to sustain the idea of separateness of parts, but also to distract attention from the hardness of the Fifth. Contrary and oblique motion do both these things ; and Fifths should always be approached by them. An approach to a Fifth by similar motion draws attention to the Fifth— the very thing to be avoided. Even in similar motion, however, when the top part moves a step or a little step, and the "bond " between the chords is otherwise good, these ill-approached Fifths may be allowed by the ear. 191J. Bidden or Covered Consecutives. — The old theorists had a notion that ill- ■ approached Octaves and Fifths were ob- jected to because in moving to them by Eimilar motion the ear might imagine that it passed through a shadowy Octave or Fifth before it reached the real one. These imagined Octaves or Fifths were well called " hidden " or " covered" con- secutives. Dr. Marx and other good writers abandon tliis theory, but allow that great care must be taken in ap- proaching a Fifth or an Octave. 191c. Ill-approached Fourths. — Even a Fourth (or an Eleventh) when accented and between the outer parts is too hard and definite to be approached by similar motion— too much like a Fifth. See " How to Observe," p. 22. 191(Z. Broken Chords and Consecutives. — Consecutives are heard between broken chords (see above, p. 287; as well as be- tween the unbroken chords. The pro- gression of one arpeggio chord to the next must be closely watched, and the chords treated as thougli their tones were struck at the same time and not broken. 191e. Accents and Consecutives. — Fine ears are annoyed by consecutives between adjacent strong or medium accents. Thus in Ex. 7, if the melody of the first pulse were s, the consecutives between Bass and melody of the first and fourth pulses would be felt, and should be avoided. "192. False (or Cross) Relation of Parts.— When there arc two successive tones, one of which is altered (that is, raised or lowered a chromatic semi-tone, see above, p. 9) from the other, they should occur in the same part. If one of these tones occurs in one part and the other in a different part, the mind is puzzled, having its attention distracted from the steady flow of a particular part by the setting up of a misleading relation with some otber IMPERFECT TONIO CADENCES. 295 part. This is called a " false" or " cross " relation. When, there- fore, we have such progressions as f fe and f e f or t ta and ta t or s se and se S they must be in the same part. 192S. Exceptions. — It is agreed on all hjmds that an intermediate chord does not prevent the ill-effect on the ear of this " falsp-relation." But the best masters allow a great many exceptions to this rule of "false relation." Indeed it is plain that whatever makes one or both of the parts very smooth and flow- ing, so preventing confusion, — or what- ever distracts attention, and so prevents tlie " false relation " being noticed, will tend to excuse such occuiTences. Tlius, 1st, when the " false relation" occurs be- tween the end of one phrase and the be- ginning of another, the very separateness of the phrases breaks the sense of rela- tion. 2nd, When one of the two tones is doubled in its own chord, and has in one case the proper progression of " the two tones in the same part," the true re- lation covers the false. 3rd, When one of the parts moves stepwise, and especially when it approaches the last chord by the smooth little step (as f m, I se, s fe), this smooth connectedness of one part pre- vents its being confused with another, even by " false relation." .4th, Wlien the second of the two tones forms the entry of a new voice (thus acting as a distrac- aon) the "false relation" is Jess disagree- ible. 5th, "WTien the second of the two cones is a dissonance, this disti-action of dissonance is sometimes allowed as an excuse. The student may analyse the cases given by Macf an-en, Richter, Stainer and Saroni. Ex. 12. KEY G. d s :m r ;- d 1 :f m :r d d r :d t,:- d d :d d:t| d m r :s s :- m f :1 s :f PI d t,:d S6 s,:- d f, If, Ds'S d FIFTH STEP. Imperfect Tonic Cadences. Plagal Cadences. Imperfect Dominant Cadences. Subdominant Cadences. 193. Imperfect Tonic Cadences.— When in a Tonic cadence the Tonic chord is approached in the Bass stepwise, or is itseit taken in the h position, thus :r l.d, :t| |d, :f In, :r |P1, we call the cadence imperfect. In analysis we mark all cadences in which the Bass tone is approached stepwise by a dot placed over tne chord name— i) t>h, S S&, &c. 193&. Perfect and Imperfect. — These words are very variously used in relation to cadences. For the use of our own pupils we have endeavoured to aflix a definite meaning to them. But they should beiir in mind that whUe the ca- dence in which the Dominant moves to the Tonic (havmg its Boot both in Aiv and Bass) is commonly called the Perfect cadence, the cadence on the Dominant is often called "the Imperfect cadence," and sometimes "the half-close." They should also remember that many other " closes of lines" which we call cadences, would be called by some theorists "avoid- "jd cadences." See above, p. 79, par. G6c. 296 PLAGAL AND IJIPERFECT DOMINANT CADENCES. Ex. 14. KEY C. Ex. 1.5. KEY F. Ex. 16. KEY C. t (\' ' : s m — \ r d' f m — W d — s s s s — l-l s — 1 t d' r (\ d \ f PI 'vSc S6 ■•iid Ex. 17. KEY C. m D6 m m^^=^ 194. Plagal Cadences.— When in a cadence on the Tonic, the Tonic chord is preceded by the Subdominant instead of the Dominant, that cadence is called a Plagal cadence. This cadence is always more effective in its solemnity when the chord of the Dominant or Dominant Seventh (establishing the key) has occuired just before it. A A A Ex. 18. KEY G. m :r Id d f f |(n d :t, Id d d d Id 8 :f \m m 1 1 |S d :s, |1, d f. f, Id s 195. Imperfect Dominant Cadences.— When in a Dominant cadence the Dominant chord is approached in the Bass stepwise or is itself taken in the h position, thus :1 js, :f |S, :d |t, :1| |t|, we call the cadence imperfect. In all these cases, except that of :d |ti, the Dominant chord will be entered, not from the Tonic, but from some other chord, such as F, F6, E6, and L. Ex. 19. KEY G. Ex. 20. KEY F. Ex. 21. KEY G. Ex. 22. KEY G. THE PDTTING-TOGETHEE OF CHOKDS. 297 196. Subdominant Cadences —The Cadence moving from Tonic to Subdominant is called the Subdominant cadence. It does not well decide the key, and is only used in subordinate cadence-places. This cadence allows the Basses :d |f, ;d |1|, •n |1, :s |f, and ;n If. Ex. 23. KEY D. Ex. 24. key F. Ex. 25. key G. Ex. 26. key F. Ex. 27. key F. f :- \-l f - I "^ f : — i;: 1 :- [ a 1 d : — d — \:s, d :- ■d :- d d — 1 :- (■■• f — hd d :- (::, f :- \ 3 f — f :- 1. — (:m, 1, :- f. :- m, f. — ?:&:p= I I 197. The Putting-together of Chords— Most students of this book will be content if, when they see and hear a chord, they can give it its name and remember it. It is a book of Chord- Naming rather than of Harmony Analysis or Composition. But many students will desire to notice the manner in which the chords succeed one another, and the manner in which the "parts" are made to flow. In public examinations also, students are some- times required to put chords together — to work little composition exercises — in order to show that they know the nature of the chords themselves. We, therefore, give below brief hints on the putting-together of chords. 1976. What to do. — If " what to do" is properly attended to, "what not to do" will need veiy little attention. 1st. Decide the "cadence relations" you will use. See above, pp. 9-1 to 96. And in hai-monizing' each section work up towards the chosen cadence. In other words, work back from that cadence, making sure all the approaches to it. 2nd. In your early attempts decide the melody of the outer parts (Soprano and Bass) before attending to the inner parts. In doing this you wUl also decide the chords to be used. These decisions must be subject to alteration afterwards if the inner parts require it. 3rd. In choosing yoiu' chords prefer always the Tonic, the Dominant or the Subdominant, because these are the three great chords of the key, which in modem music must always be clearly impressed on the mind. 4th. To promote smoothness in the Bass use, in moderation, the b and c positions of the three principal chords (see above, p. 289), and for convenience in this and the other parts, use what we shall jjre- sently call the "substitutional" chords. 5th. Obey the rules of doubling and omission on p. 278. * 6th. Obey " fixed progressions," such as that of the Dominant and the Domi- nant Seventh chords (above, p. 286), that of the Bass in c positions (above, p. 289), and that of all dissonances and chromatic resolutions. See below, pp. 325, 344. 7th. Bond your chords, and if possible in the same part. See above, p. 279. 8th. Keep your parts quiet, that is, as a general rule, let them move to the near- est tone in the next chord. Next to the "bond" this stepwise motion of the parts is the most powerful means of making the ear feel the connection of the chords. 298 WHAT TO DO— WHAT NOT TO DO. gth. "When for the sake of streugtli one or two of the parts leap in bold inteirak, it is all the more necessary that the other parts should hold on the same tone or move stepwise. 10th. In arranging the relative motion of your parts if two move in similar mo- tion, let the others have contrary or oblique motion or both. This gives a welcome variety, and keeps the parts distinct. 11th. Let your chords be well distri- buted for the voices. See above, p. 277. 12th. Give to the melody of each "voice" variety of pitch, always weU witliin its own range. This will relieve both voice and ear. In order to do this the young composer will have to leaxn "where he is " both in absolute pitch and in compass of voice. He will have to apply his Sol- fa syllables mentaUy to the scale on p. 22, above. He wHl thus gradually and very soon come to have this scale printed on his mind's eye. TTis knowledge of the registers of his own voice will help him to remember pitch. 13th. In approaching transition, choose your "transmutation chord" carefully. See below, p. 309 . 14th. In making your " responses" (see above, p. 99) take care that period answers to period rather than merely section to section. 197c. IVhat to avoid.— Some of the fol- lowing negative mles are only repetitions, in another form, of the positive ones above ; and others 'will be quite unneces- saiy if the above roles are carefully obeyed. * loth. Avoid any strong cadence pro- gression, like that of the Dominant Seventh in the a position to the Tonic except in a cadence. See above, p. 287. 16th. Avoid doubling the Thirds of Major chords in their b positions except with the apology of contrary motion. See above, p. 278. 17th. Avoid too many consecutive b and c positions (see above, p. 289), and too many consecutive Minor chords. See be- low, p. 299. * ISth. Avoid the progression Ea to Da. See below, p. 210, * 19th. Avoid " consecutive" and other- wise ill-approached Fifths and Octaves. See above, pp. 292, 293, 294. The young composer in order to test his work by this and the following rules should go through every part along with every other part, and see that all is right. He should hi-st take the two most important parts — the outer parts, generally S. and B. Then he should take the T. with the B, and the C. with the B ; after that, the C. with the S. and the T. with the S. ; and lastly, the two inner parts together. The process will at first seem tedious to him, but he will soon pass through it quickly, and it will help to form the invaluable habit of noticing the relation of parts to each other. A somewhat quicker plan is to put a pencil mark against the Fifth of each chord in succession, and then if two successive pencil marks are found in the same "part," the student looks out for consecutive Fifths. And again to go through the chords noticing the doubled notes, marking (with a different pencil mark) the higher (or if you prefer it, the 'ower) of the two, and when two such pencil marks are found successively in the same "part," the student looks out for consecutive Octaves. The commonest danger of consecutive FiftJis is when the Root of a chord is a step above or below that of the preceding chord, as in the progressions Fa to Sa, K4 to Dc, or Da to Ha. The student will, therefore, watch for these cases. * 20th. Avoid leaping from the c position. See above, p. 289. 21st. Avoid Thirds from the Bass, especially when low in pitch. See above, p. 277. 22nd. Avoid immelodic progressions See above, p. 8. * 23rd. Avoid false relation. See above, p. 294. * 24th. Avoid carrying the paiis out of range for the voice or instrument in- tended. You may as well not write music at all, as write music that cannot be easily sung or played. 25th. Avoid the crossing or interlacing of parts, except for special effect, and where the crossing can be managed with- out confusing the two parts. With the same view of keeping the parts distinct, it is important not to write a note in one part which is higher than the previous note of a higher part, or lower than the pre\'ious note of a lower part. Thus, if the Contralto has / while the pre\-ious Soprano has m, or if the Tenor has li when the previous Bass has d, there will be a confusion of parts. Note that some of the above rules are more imperative than others. Thus, for example, Nos. 6, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, must be obeyed absolutely, and Kos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 17, 21, 25, must sometimes give way to them. 299 SIXTH STEP. AIiNOR Chords : thsir Substitutional Cuaracter. The Habits OF THE Minor Supertonic Chord. Tub Seventh on the Super- TONIC. The Fourth ox the Dominant. The Coupled Fourth and Seventh on the Dominant. The Supertonic Cadence. 198, Minor Common Chords.— Of the common chords (see above, p. 276) those which have their Minor Thirds below are called Minor common chords, or Minor chords. There are three such chords m the common scale. One on 1, consisting of 1| d-Tl ; one on n, consisting of n S t ; and one on r. consisting of r f 1. 199. Unsonorousness of Minor Chords.— The Minor chord is like the Major in having in its closest form " two sweet Thirds and a binding Fifth," but it has the less sweet of the two Thirds in the more noticeable places, atid its sonorousness is not so sweet and full as that of the Major chords. There is little difference in this respect between its a and b positions, but its c l)osition is so unsonorous that it is very rarely used. In all the Minor chords the Third is doubled freely, and this strengthened sweetness somewhat counterbalances the natural unsonorousness of the chord. 1996. Statics. — By referring to the dia- gram on p. 283, the reader ■will easily see that the Third of a llinor chord (say d in the chord of L) tlirows up a strong "third partial" against its Root in a higher Octave, and that the Root has its "tifth partial" dissonant. This makes it ahout on a par with the b position of a Major chord. The doctrine of simplicity of ratio (above, p. 276) also shows the inferiority of a Minor chord. In a Major chord while the Root vibrates 400 times the Tliird vibrates 500 times, and the Fiftli GOO times ; but in Minor chords, while the Root and the Fifth are the same, the Third introduces the less simple ratio of 480 vibrations. How tlie doctrines of "coincidences" and of "differentials" as well as of " partials " strengthen theso views may be seen in " Musical Statics," pp. 18, 39, 45 to 47. 200. The Substitutional Use of Minor Chords.— Except in the Minor Mode itself, the Minor chords are used, partly indeed for variety of effect, but chiefly as occasional and con- venient substitutes for the Major chords. That is, the Tonic (D), the Dominant (S), and Subdominant (F), form the framework of the key which, especially in modern music, is always kept in mind. But for variety of effect and for smoothness of parts the less sonorous Minor chords are sometimes used instead of them in various places and in certain ways. 201. The Substitutional Chord Rah.— The substitutional chord most used in the Major Mode is that on the grave form of the second of the scale, which we call Bah. See above, p. 7. The mental effect of this chord corresponds with that of its Root, and 300 THE 8XJPEKX0NIC SEVENTH. Bah lias something more of seriousness in its rousing effect than Bay. If F is called the serious chord (see above, p. 280) E may be called the semi-serious. Two of its tones are the same as those in the chord F, and it is often used both in its a and b positions in the places in which F would otherwise be found, especially in the approach to cadences. Moreover, when F would be followed by S, B, is a very valuable substitute on account of its supplying a bond to S in the tone r. See above, p. 279. See above, p. 287, and Ex. 28. It maybe that the mental effect of the tone rah is •wanted in the Bass. See Ex. 30. Or it is simply a smoother Bass or other part •which is required. See Ex. 29. See other examples in "How to Observe," pp. 23 to 26. 2016. Illustrations. — If in the foUo-wing cases the student •will try to replace the chord F •wherever he finds R, he will soon discover the reasons ■why II was substi- tuted. It may be that there is a r in the Air which needs to be harmonized •with- out wholly tbro'wing away the Subdomi- nant effect in approaching a cadence. | 202. The Seventh on the Supertonic. —Next to the Domi- nant Seventh (see above, p. 286) the dissonance most used in modern music is the Seventh on the Supertonic. That is d against r in the Major Mode, and 1 against t in the Minor Mode. These dissonances are good because their percussion is against the Root of the chord, and their resolution is on the Dominant. It is very often a primary dissonance ; its percussion is commonly on the strong pulse, and when it occurs on the weak pulse its resolution is delayed. See above, p 285. It is probably for these reasons that it always has the best preparation — the horizontal. ''E is especially valuable as a substitutional chord for F because its dissonance supplies a bond between three chords. See above, p. 285. Probably on this account it is generally pre- ferred to E wherever E would occur on the strong pulse. 2025. Added Sixth.— Professor Mac- farren and Dr. Stainer describe R as the common chord of the Supertonic, and Eichttr as a " secondary triad " on the same. 'R is called by Richter, as by us, the chord of the Seventh on the Super- tonic. Dr. Stainer (imagining an unheard Root and Third) calls it the second in- version of the Dominant Eleventh . Dr. Macfarren calls it, when horizontally pre- pared and resolved on S, a chord of the Seventh, but when it is unprepared and resolves on 'S or on D, he calls it the second inversion of the Dominant Elev- enth. Professor Ouseley says, " Let it be assumed . . that it is derived from two Roots, the Dominant and the Super- tonic." Old writers called it the chord of the Added Sixth; imagining the Root to be / and the r (not the prepared and re- si^lved d) to be the dissonance. Ex 28. KEY C :d' r' :r' d' :s f :f m :d' 1 :t d' DJ f Ri :s d Ex.29. KEY C. d' d' r' t m s f r s d' 1 s d m f s THE DOMINANT FOURTH. 301 Ex. 80. KEY G. :d r f m :1. 1, t, d :f f r d :f, r, s. d. Ex. 32. KEY Bb. :d d :t, d :s, 1| :f. m, :m f :r d :ni, T' :s, d, Ex 31. KEY Q. I s r f m 1 \ d d t, d s 1 s s D6 f, 'R6 % d D D6 'B 'g 203. The Fourth on the Dominant.— Next, in common usage, to the chord of the Seventh on the Dominant and that of the Seventh on the Supertonic, is the chord of the Fourth on the Dominant. That is, the dissonance of d against r in four-S (*S) in the Major Mode, and that of 1 against t in four-lf C^M) in the Minor Mode. The Third of the chord is necessarily omitted in the Percussion, but it immediately re-appears in the Eesolu- tion ; for ^S resolves upon S. But this resolution is sometimes " delayed." See p. 285. The chord of the Fourth on the Domi- nant is " self-resolved." This chord is not so common as that of 'R, probably because its resisting tone is the Fifth of the chord instead of the strong Root. Its percussion is very often primary and on the strong pulse. Probably for these reasons it always has the horizontal preparation. 2036. Suspended Fourth and Dominant Eleventh. — Dr. Macfarren calls *S, hori- zontally prepared, a Suspended Fourth. Richter also calls it " a suspension before the Third " — supposing that the d is "hung over" or suspended from the last chord. By suspensions are meant horizontally prepared dissonances. Dr. Stainer calls the same chord (prepared or unprepared) ii chord of the Dominant Eleventh. An Eleventh is a Fourth an Octave higher, but as there is no necessity for the dissonance to stand at such a dis- tance from the Root, we prefer to call it a Fourth. Ex. 33. KEY F. m r :s s .d d :t, d :s 8 If n :d S| :s, d 302 SEVENTH STEP. DniixisHED Chords. The Chord ox the Leading Tone. It* Substitutional Habits. The Seventh on the Leading Tone IN THE Major Mode. The Chord on the Submediant in the Major Mode. Its Substitutional and Cadential Habits. 204 Diminished Chords.— The common chords were defined (above, p. 276) as containing, in their normal position, a Major and a Minor Third, included within a Perfect Fifth. _ There are chords less acceptable than the common chords, which contain two Minor Thirds included within an Imperfect (or Diminished) Fifth. See above, p. 11 and 8. These are called Diminished Chords. They are found on t (with the tones t r f ) in the Major Mode, and on se (with the tones se t r) in the Minor Mode. 2046. Bah and Eay.—lD. the Minor I makes the interval se up to rah the same Mode the Second of the common scale | as < up to /—that is, twenty-seven com- Renerally takes the form of rah. This i maa. 205. The Diminished Chord T.— The chord T has a strong " partial dissonance " (see above, p. 7) especially in its a position. It is principally used in its h position. Its a position is seldom employed except in three-part harmony — in any harmony where the Seventh is added — and in " Sequences." Its c position is rarely employed. It has a freer progression than ''S. As its f does not dissonate against a s it is not obliged to go down. It may move upward, and rarely it leaps, but care must be taken to avoid consecutives. With the same care, it may also be freely doubled. Its r naturally prefers the smooth resolutions to d or n, but it can leap upward or downward. These are reasons why Tfe is sometimes preferred to 'Sc. 206. Substitutional Habits of T. — Tfe is a convenient sub- stitutional chord for 'Sc, and it is used in most of the favourite places of that chord, as when the Bass moves n r d, f r d. In the narrow three-part harmony, Ta is sometimes used instead of 'Sfe, as when the Bass moves t| d, and Tc instead of ''Sc?. When- ever it is practicable, ''Sc is stronger and better than Th ; but Tt is used for securing smoothness of parts. 20GJ. First Inversion of Dominant Se- venth.— Eichter calls Ta (much as we do) the "Diminished Triad." Dr. Stainer calls it in one place the first inversion of the Dominant Seventh with omitted Root, but Dr. Macfarren does not recognize Ta ex- cept in sequence, and then does not name it. T6 would be the second inversion on the same omitted Boot. THK SUBTONIC SETKNTH. .303 Ex. 36. KEY F. A r m d t, d s f s m r d Dft T6 Ex. 37. KET C. :1 t :d' :f f ;s d' r' :ni' :f r :d ■^^=- ■R- =ii~-i~i n J I I -J l-n =S^=P Ex. 38. KEY G. f m t, d f s r, d, 39. KEY a. s.s.c. m d d t. Ex. 40. KEY C. s.s.c. d 1 :s d r :ni s f :ni m t, IT :d ^^= 207. The Seventh on the Leading-tone.— Next in im- portance to the dissonances already named (see above, pp. 286 and 300) is the dissonance of the Seventh on the Leading-tone in the Major Mode, — that is, 1 against t. The dissonance is generally tertiary or even quaternary in degree (see above, p. 281), and it most commonly occurs with t in the Bass and 1 in the highest part. With this distant " degree " of dissonance the discord is commonly unprepared and placed on a strong pulse, but it also occurs in closer degrees and on the weak pulse. In these cases it is commonly prepared, sometimes obliquely, but also, especially in the Bass, horizontally. The unsonorous a position of this chord T, which is so little used Avithout the dissonance, is freely employed with it. 2076. Added Ninth or Dominant llajor Ex. 41. key F. Ninth. — Richter calls 'T (much as we do) the chord of the Seventh on the seventh degree of the scale. Drs. Macfairen and Stainer call it the "first inversion of the Dominant Major Ninth," on an omitted Root. Dr. Ouseley calls it the "first in- version of the chord of the added Ninth." He supposes the Dominant to be the Root, but carefully shows how in neaily all the inversions the Root is " better away." Among these is the " fourth inversion of the added Ninth"— the h.arsh ''Ta'— which he thinks is made less harsh by resolving the Seventh on S before Dc is struck. 9 'So with the. Root occurs rarely in vocal music. See Ex. 16.5 to 169. The Ninth on Sa without the Seventh (which makes it not an " added Ninth ") is not uncom- mon if horizontally prepared. See Ex. 158. 208. The Substitutional Chord Lah.— The Minor chord Lah is freely used as a substitute for the Major chord Fb wher- ils i=t Ex. 42. KEY r. d 1 s d t, d s f s m r m -i J J. 804 CHORD L. SURPRISE CADENCE. L CADKNCE. ever n is wanted for an upper part instead of f ,— and frequently as a substitute lor d whenever it is desirable to surprise the ear by causing S or ''S or Tb, which so commonly resolves on D, to move into L. This is not unfrequently done out of cadences. When it is done in a cadence, such a cadence is called the " surprise cadence." The chord L is also sometimes used inde- pendently (that is, not as a substitutional) when it is desired to put the tone 1 in the Bass, and to give it its most effective over- accompaniment. But in the Major Mode this chord is chiefly substitutional. In the Minor Mode it, of course, takes a very prominent and independent position. A Lah cadence (D to L) iai the Major Mode is uncommon. 208i. Examples.— Ex. 43. Gomp. Ex. 9 KEY F. m d r — s, 1. t, — d m s — d 1, Sl — Ex. 44. Comp. Ex. 11. KEY G. ,:m d :r t, -. 1, :1, s. K \:d m :r r 1, :f, 8, Ex. 45. KEY F. ^T=^-^=r^--^=n=fi ^•^^r-r — ^ — - — F— -f^ — ^^—^ — ,"*— r— -T— Ex. 46. KEY D. s PI f :r m d r :t, d' d' 1 :s m 1 r :s 1 Ex. KEY s 47. G. f Surprise. m :— d t| d :— PI r d :- d 8. 1.:- m Ex.48. KEY C. Surprise. 1 :t d' — f :f PI — d' :r' d' — f :r 1 — r-1- Ex. 49. Comp. Ex. 24. KEY C. s :s d' f t 208c. Minor Triad or Common Chord on Sixth of Key.— These are phrases by which the chord L is named. 209. Bonding of Stepwise Chords.— There are three couples of chords in use, the roots of which are in stepwise relation. They are SL or LS, FS or SF, DR or RD. Of these, the first STEPWISE CHOKDS. SEVEN-SOH. CHORD ON MEDIANT. 305 couple (SL) is most used, aud it is used both upward and down- ward. The second couple is, even in the upward progression (FS), less used than it used to be, and in the downwai'd pro- gression (SF) is felt to be harsh, and is, therefore, very rarely employed. The third couple (DR) is sometimes used in the upward progression, but in the downward progression (RD) it produces so awkward an effect as to he generally forbidden. These facts correspond with Helmholtz's theory of an implied bond to the Tonic. For the chords S and L have between them three tones in common with the Tonic, while the chords F and S have only two tones in common with the Tonic, and the chords D and R present to our ears the Tonic itself in close proximity to a chord which has no sort of bond with it. It is curious to notice, however, that these progressions are less objectionable when one or, better, both of the chords are in the b position. 210. Exceptional Resolution of S and "^S. — Of the irregular resolutions of S and ''S the commonest are those into the chord of li above described. But out of cadences F6 is sometimes used (especially in old harmonies) when the tones s 1 are wanted in the Bass. Fa is sometimes made to follow S when the tone 1 is wanted in one of the upper parts. The chords T and M are sometimes allowed to follow the chord S on a weak pulse when it is convenient for the smoothness of " some part " to omit the s in the case of T, or to use n instead of r in the case of M. The chords T or M are then felt by the ear as an irregular continuation of the chord S. If the progression S to R is found, there must be some apology of sequence or of fugal or other imitation to account for it. See lis. 146 and 148, " How to Observe." EIGHTH STEP. The Chord on the Mediant. Bye-tones. Consonant Passing- tones. Secondary Chords. 211. The Chord on the Mediant— The chord on n in the Major Mode is very little used. The corresponding chord on d in the Minor is not used in truly Minor passages. This is not from any fault in themselves ; for M is as good a Minor chord and D as good a Major chord as can be made. It is because of their modal relation. The choi'ds on the Tonic, Dominant, and Subdominant are, in modern music, those chiefly used, because they establish the Mode. The chords on the Supertonic, the W 306 THE UNMEAiflXG CHOfiD. BYE-TONES. Ex. 51. Contrary Motion KET Q. , Leading-tone, and tlie Submediant are chiefly used as convenient substitutes for these. But the chord on the Mediant is not wanted as a substitutional chord, and is rarely employed except with the apology of sequence (see above, p. 105) or contrasted motion. 2116. Examples.— The. "unmeaning" chord has the apology of sequence in Ex. 50, and of double contrary motion in Ex. 51. In Ex. 52 it is used in the place of S going to L, and in that of cadential Dc. In these cases the ear doubts -whether it does not hear the chord S ; we call it "8. 'Zllc. Minor Triad or Common Chord on Third of Key.— These are phrases used to represent the chord M in the Major. Dr. Stainer calls it the chord of the Tonic Seventh. This name he gets by suppos- ing an omitted Root. Ex. 50. KEY G. Sequence. , / d :ni r :f s f \m r .d d ■■t, 1, :in f :s 1 :d r •.m f 212. The Weak Part of a Pulse.— The first part of a pulse even in weak pulses is much more emphatic than the second, and much more noticed by the ear. It is nevertheless important to notice what occurs even on the second part of a pulse. In this step we shall study the consonant tones which make their appearance on the second part of a pulse. 213, Bye-tones. — A bye-tone is a tone of the same chord, but different from that just struck in the same part. Being con- sonant with the chord, and yet different from the last tone, it has power with the ear to prevent the effect of consecutives. When it comes between what would otherwise be objectionable consecutives, the bad effect is not felt. Bye-tones in the Bass alter the position of the chord, and their effect on the ear is stronger there than in any other part. We, therefore, propose in our analysis always to re-name a chord when it is put into a new position by a Bass bye-tone. 2136. Examples. — In the first pulse of 1 m being in the Ex. 53, « is a bye-tone. In the third chord. pulse, s d and m are bye-tones ; and the | Bass, we re-name the CONSONANT INCIDENTALS. ANALYSIS. 307 214. Consonant Passing-tones. — A tone passing stepwise from one chord to another may be called a " passing-tone. Of these, some are consonant, and others are dissonant ; some occupy a full pulse, and others part of a pulse ; some strike on the strong part of a pulse, and others pass on the weak part. By the term " Consonant Passing-tone " we understand a passing-tone on the weak part of a pulse which is consonant to the tones sounding with it. Thus, in the chord of R, if the 1 is changed on the second part of the pulse to t, that t is consonant with the r and f, and would, if its effect were powerful enough on the ear, change the chord into that of Tb. Thus also in the chord of L, if n is changed on the second part of the pulse into f , that f is consonant with 1 and d, and would, if its effect on the ear were strong enough, change the chord to that of F6. A consonant passing-tone, like a bye-tone, will save the ear from the effect of consecutives. These tones are marked in our analysis by the small letters c.p. 2146. Examples. — In Ex. 54, second I in the fifth pulse / and r are con.sonant pulse, t is a consonant passing-tone, and | passing-tones. 215. Secondary Chords. — Although a simple consonant passing-tone is not powerful enough to make the ear recognize a new chord on the weak part of a pulse, yet if such a tone (being the Root or Third of a chord) appears in the Bass, or if the Root and Third appear together in the upper parts, the ear receives a new and distinct chord-shock, and the new chords thus created on the second part of a pulse are called Secondary Chords. Secondary chords, like bye-tones and consonant passing-tones, intervening between what would otherwise be objectionable con- secutives prevent their ill effects. 2156. Examples.— See Ex. 53, pulses 2 and 4 ; Ex. 54, pulse 7 ; Ex. 55, pulse 2 ; and Ex. 56, pulse 2. 216. Exceptions. — The strong habits of the ear, both in cadences and in recognizing the unsonorous c position in Minor chords create some exceptions in our analysis of secondaries. Thus, f in 'S is so much expected in the second last chord of a D cadence that the ear recognizes it as making the secondary chord of ''S in that place, even when the f stands alone and not in the Bass. And again when what would appear to be secondary chords are really Minor chords in the c position, we prefer to interpret them in some other way. Compare par. 281. 216*. Examples. — For / in cadence, see Ex. 54, second-last pulse. For the c position of Minor chords not accepted as secondary, see Ex. 54, pulse 5. For the c position even of Major chords, when felt to be out of place, see Ex. 56, pulse 4. 308 TEANSITION. ITS EKMOTES. Ex. 53 KEY C. d' s:l .t m :f .r s :f PI :r d' :d'.t Id' m .s :s ' s s .d';m'.r|d' d .m :s .f ; m D6 'Sd Ex. 55. KEY D. d' :s m — m .f -.m .r d - d' :d' .s s — 1, :d .t, d — S6 c.p. Dc F V^=^ ^^^m =g= .jr-ij^-^jj:} ^-%-=s^ 6 5 6 7 4 3 4 NINTH STEP, Transition. Its Remove. Its Factor. Its Transmutation Chord. Its Extent. Its Relation. Its Manner of Entry. Its Object. Analysis of Transition. 217. The Removes.— The removes of Transition are best understood by the study of an Extended Modulator like that on p. 50, above. Taking any one key as the principal key of the piece, the key which stands first to the right of it is called its 1st sharp key, and that which stands second to the right is called its 2nd sharp key, and so on. Thus the key of F is the 2nd shai-p key to that of Ez. In the same way, the key which stands first to the left of the principal key is called its 1st flat key, and that which stands second to the left is called its 2nd fiat key, and so on. Thus the key of A has D for its 1st flat key, and C for its 3rd flat key, as well as E for its 1st sharp key. The most important ITS FACTOBS. ITS TRANSMUTATION CHOllD. 309 question about every transition is, " How far does it remove the ear from the last key heard, and in which direction ? " The answer to these questions indicates the " remove " of the tran- sition. As a general rule, the more distant the remove, the greater is the number of altered tones, and the greater the disturbance to the ear. Removes to the right, or sharp removes, are commonly associated with elevation or excitement of feel- ing ; and removes to the left, or flat removes, usually suggest depression. 217J. Illustraiions.—See for illustra- In analysing under this head, wo men- tions Book II, pp. 53 to 61. There are tion the remove from the last key heai'd, also cases of the second removes above, whether it bo the original key or a sub- pp. 107, 210, 226. There is a case of the ordinate key. third remove in "Blow, blow," p. 171. 218. The Factors of Transition. — The musical forces which carry the ear into a new key — the Factors of Transition — are, 1st, the setting up of the distinguishing-tone of the new key, especially in the chords of the Dominant or Dominant Seventh of that key leading into the new Tonic ; 2nd, one of those forms of melody in the Bass which are habitually heard in a Tonic cadence suggesting the new key ; and 3rd, such a manner of commencing a new musical section as, even without the dis- tinguishing-tone, suggests the return to tbe old key, or an imitation in some new key. 2186. niuslrations. — Thus in "Mel- combe," p. 80, the 1st sharp transition is made— 1st, by the Dominant Seventh of the new key with its distinguishing'-tone gently heard in the Tenor ; next, the mo- tion of the Bass :m \r is \d makes itself felt as cadential, and last the Dominant Seventh of the new key makes its distinguishing-tone heard in the Air itself. In " Innocents," p. 83, the well- known cadential Bass melody :/ |s -.s \d begins to affect the ear, even before the distinguishing-tone of the new key is heard. It is almost the same in " Sharon," p. 84, with the Bass melody -.d \/:s \d. In " Bach," p. 83, the distinguishing- tone (<) in the second' score, speaking sharply in the Air, and leading into the new Tonic chord, is stifficient without a full Tonic cadence. The 1st flat transi- tion is illustrated in Dr. Dykes' s sentence quoted on p. 106, where the first factor which strikes the ear is the Dominant Seventh of the new key, and the feeling of a change in key is strengthened by the motion of the Bass, which imitates the previous phrase. The same factors ap- pear in a 2nd flat remove on the next page. In " Every valley," p. 159, sc. 4, similar factors are used, and the imitat- ing motion of the Bass begins to affect the ear at the same time with the dis- tinguishing-tone /. In Haydn's Finale, p. 208, third score, there is nothing but the distinguishing-tone / in the new 'S chord to can-y the ear into the new key. In Beethoven's "First Movement," p. 201, sc. 1, the distinguishing-tone alone, with- out a chord, proclaims the coming of a new Tonic, and it is only the altered style of the music in the previous measure which gives us a sense of " new com- mencement" and leads us to include that measure also in the new key. 219. The Transmutation Chord.— In simple transition the composer commonly imagines the new key before the dis- tinguishing-tone is actually heard. It is so also with a practised listener. It is generally the habitual motion of the Bass in approach to cadences, or the character of the chords employed, or the shape of the melody which suggests the idea of a new 310 FOEMS OF TRANSIITTTATION. EXTENT. key. The chord on which the imagined change takes place must be common to both keys. We call it the Transmutation Chord. Et is that which we write by means of bridge-tones. It is not always possible to fix on one chord and say that that and that only is the transmutation chord. The ear and the judgment will often have to choose between two or three chords. The com- mencement of a phrase will generally have to decide the point for the analyst. The convenience of the singer will often decide it for the copyist. The commonest form of transmutation for the 1st sharp key is that of " S becoming D," the next is that of " D becoming F," and the next. that of " L6 becoming E,6." Thus the progression S6 7feEc S is heard as T)h ^Sc D, that of Sc 7feR S as Dc 7S D, the progression 7L FEi S as 7R T6 D, that of 7L TfeR s as 'R, "JS, D, and the progression D 7feRc S as F ^Sc D. The commonest transmutation in going to the first flat key is that of " D becoming S," leading directly into ^S of the new key. The next is that of " F becoming D," also leading to ^S of the new key. Instead of ^S its substitutional T6 or ^T is some- times used. Sometimes the distinguishing-tone appears in the Subdominant chord of the new key — TA becoming F, but this is not so effective as when the Dominant Seventh or its substitu- tionals declare the new key. Thus the progression D t^-Dd F6 is heard as S ^Sd Di, that of D taDfe F as S ^Qh D, that of D TA taM6 F as S F T6 D, the progression F& ^Dc F as D6 7Sc D, that of F6 taM& F as D6 T6 D, and that of F6 TA F6 as D& F D6. 2196. Illustration. — In going to the 1st sharp key S becomes D, in " Reay," p. 85, fic. 2, and in "Melcombe," p. 80, sc. 1. In the last case the transmutation cannot take place earlier because of the old Dominant Seventh going to its Tonic just before. L becomes R in "Bach," p. 83, sc. 2, where we cannot take the ti'ansmu- tation chord earlier, not only because of the old Dominant and Tonic chords which precede, but also because it is well to commence a transition, when we can, with the commencement of a new phrase. D becomes F in " Innocents," p. 83, sc. 2, when the ti-ansmutation would be taken on D=F rather than S=D to suit the phrasing both of Air and Bass. In cause it begins the phrase with the new key ; the second is here used because, for the sake of the player, we tiy always to place the bridge-notes one under the other, and this could not be managed on the first note of the phrase. In " Blow, blow," p. 169, second score, we are obliged to write the last chord of a Tonic cadence as a transmutation chord, although it is not truly so. If anything is in the last key heard, it must be the final chord of its Tonic cadence. But we write it thus, first, for the convenience of the D.C., and second, for convenience in going for- ward, and in order to avoid putting the bridge-notes of different parts in different places. " Blow, blow," p. 169, EC. 1, the transmu- In going to the first flat key, D becomes tation can be taken on the words "as," S in "Every valley," p. 159, sc. 4. F be- " man's," or "in;" in the 1st case S be- comes D in the first flat return to the coming D ; in the 2nd, L becoming K ; original key in " Melcombe," p. 80, sc. 2 ; and in the 3rd, the old transmutation of | "Innocents," p. 83, sc. 2; and "Sharon," M becoming L. The first is the best be- p. 84, sc. 2. 220. The Extent of Transition.— Transition which is only made for the cadence, beginning on the third-la.';t strong (or medium) accent, or later, and not going beyond the cadence, we call a " cadence transition." A transition beginning earlier, or RELATION. SUDDEN, PROXIMATE, GRADUAL. 311 carried further than this, we call " extended transition." Tran- sition not on a cadence, but equally short or shorter, we call " passing transition." The first flat key is little used for cadence transition, and when so used (unless the taio is in an inner part and there is some apology of contrary motion between the outer parts) does not sound well. It is more used for passing transi- tion, just before a final cadence. The first sharp key is also used in the same way. The first sharp key is more often used than any other for extended and cadence transition. The second flat and the second sharp removes are not much used for extended transition, but very much used for sequence (see above, p. 105), and Oscillation (see above, p. 60) which makes only a "passing" transition. The third sharp or the third flat remove is not used for cadence or passing transition, but is used for extended tran- sition. See above, p. 61. 220J. Illustrations. — " Melcombe," p. 80, shows a cadence transition extending: back to the furthest limit. " Innocents," p. 83, "Miiller," p. 82, and "Sharon," p. 84, g:ive other examples. Extended transition is shown in " Bach," p. 83, " Croft's," p. 81, and " Reay," p. 85. Passing first flat transition is shown in the Mmuetto, p. 183, second score, and in the arpeggio accompaniment of Beet- hoven's First Movement, p. 200, section Ib, 6, where, if the arpeggio were thrown into plain chords we should have taD moving to F, or 'S of the passing key moving to D. Passing first sharp transi- tion is shown in " Reay," p. 85, fouith score. 221. The Relations of Transitions.— In studying a transi- tion, it is always important to notice its lelation to the principal key. 1st, Its relation of distance from that key ; and 2nd, its relation of movement either away from or towards that key. For the principal key must never be forgotten by composer or hearer. 221?>. rUusirations.—'S'hns,m. the "Fi- nale," p. 208, we have — 1st, a transition which is first flat to principal and depart- ing from principal ; 2nd, a transition to prin. ; 3rd, a transition first sharp depart- ing ; 4th, a transition second sharp from prin., departing further ; 5th, a transi- tion first flat to prin., returning ; 6th, return to prin ; 7th, first flat from prin., departing; 8th, first sharp from prin, departing, but not fui-ther; 9th, return to prin. ; 10th, first shai-p from prin., de- parting. As this is only the fii'st half of the movement, it properly ends in the first sharp key. 222. The Entry.— When a transition enters with its dis- tinguishing-tone on the very next pulse after a cadence in the old key, or with its distinguishing-tone moving straight out of the tone from which it has been altered (as t ta, f fe) we call it a " sudden transition." When the chord which has the distinguishing-tone is preceded only by a transmutation chord, and not by anything else which suggests the new key, we propose to call such a transition "proximate." When the distinguishing-tone makes its first appearance (after an " am- biguous " or transmutation chord) in an inner part, or on the weak part of a pulse, before it shows itself more boldly, or when 312 OBJECT OF A TEANSITION. it is preceded by the bold assertion of the Tonic of the new key, we propose to call the transition " gradual." We may give this last name to cases of two or more removes, where the distinguishing-tones of the intervening keys are given before the distinguishing-tone of the last key. 2226. Illustrations.— In. the "Finale," p. 208, third score, there is a sudden transition striking in immediately after a cadence in the old key. in the "Minuetto," p. 184, third score, and " Every valley," p. 157, third score, there are sudden transitions of the same kind. In the Waltz, p. ISO, last score, there is a similar case, not so marked because the cadence of the old key is an " open" one, having s in its highest part. A similar case to the last is Dykes's Sequence, p. 106. In " Mailer," p. 82, there is a sud- den transition, in -which the distinguish- ing- tone fe moves dii-ectly from / of the pre\-ious chord. There is a similar case LQ the "First Movement," p. 200, sc. 4, and another in the " Finale," p. 209, sc. 1. A case of "proximate" transition is in " Croft's," p. 81, sc. 2, where there is only one chord between the cadence of the old key and the distinguishing chord of the new key. There are similar cases in "Bach," p. 83, sc. 3, and in "Eeay, p. 85, scs. 2, 3. The same may be said of the transition in " Bach," p. 83, sc. 2, because although the "first phrase of that section does not end with a decided cadence, yet its final chords decide the key. A case of " gradual " transition, because of the distinguishing-tone being first heard in an inner part, appears in " Melcombe," p. 80, sc. 1. The return transition is also " gradual," because the /is not heard till after the decided assertion of the new Tonic chord. The retiim transition in "Croft's," p. 81, is "gradual," because the / is not heard till after both Domi- nant and Tonic have re-established the old key. The return transition in " Mul- ler," p. 82, is of the same character. In "Sharon," p. 84, the first transition is " giadual," and the return is only "proximate." 223. The Object.— A transition may be made either for effect or for convenience. When it is made for the sake of its own effect it is generally boldly announced, and its manner of entry is either Sudden or Proximate. When it is made simply for the " convenience " of getting quietly back into the old key, or for the " convenience " of preparing the ear for some transi- tional " effect," its manner of entry is generally gradual. It also often uses the less pronounced chords for its distinguishing-tone. 223b. Illustrations. — In "Melcombe," p. 80, so. 1, the transition is evidently made for its own brightening " effect," although its entry is gradual ; the return is manifestly made simply for the " con- venience " of getting back to the old key ; its distinguishing-tone comes in on a weak pulse, and not on a Dominant Seventh chord. In " Croft's," p. 81, the tiansition is for the transitional " effect " ■which is felt on the second pulse of the section, and the return ti'ansition, being only for " convenience " of return, is managed gradually, and without the Dominant Seventh chord. The same may be said of the ti-ansitions in " Inno- cents," " Bach," and " Sharon." In "Miiller"aud "Reay" the return tran- sitions are themselves made "effective" by the use of the Dominant Seventh, especially in " Reay," where it stands on a strong pulse. 6i " Eveiy valley," p. 157, the transition to key B is for a brightening "effect" on the word "ex- alted," as weU as to close the first period in the first sharp key. On p. 159, the two transitions are made for " sequence " rather than for their own effect, offering a beautiful and elegant way of passing over from the first sharp to the liret flat key. Listening to the three transitions on p. 160, the first, although a return to the original key, and only "proximately" entered, is felt to be made for its own brightening "effect;" the second to key B is, like that on p. 157, felt to quicken the feeling of exaltation ; and the change to key E is- certainly not only a return to the original key, but an " effective " one, introducing a sense of depression on the words " hiUs made low." In the "Finale," p. 208, the sudden transition to key G is evidently for its own grave " effect," introducing the theme a Fifth lower than when last heard. That to key D is gradually introduced, and evidently for the " convenience" of getting back to the original principal key, and giving tha theme two new shapes ; and that to key A is also for the " convenience " .of put- MODE OF ANALYSING TRANSITIONS. 313 ting the theme into one more new shape. The clian^e to key E, p. 209, is for a sudden bngrhteninf^ "effect," while that to A is maUe for the "convenience" of inti'oducing the theme in the first sharp key of the piece. Ail the changes on p. 210 appear to be intended as a prepara- tion of the ear for the solemn introduc- tion of the second theme. That to key D is a " convenient" return to the principal key; that to key G, "Minor Mode," seems to be for the "convenience" of prepai-ing the ear for the bright change which follows ; that to key A, " Major Mode," carries the ear very "effectively" into the first sharp key of the piece. The transition to the principal key, p. 211, is made the more solemn throiigli the ear having been filled just before with a vivid sense of the fii-st sharp key ; the transi- tion to key A is manifestly for the " con- venience " of making the imitation. 224. Analysis of Transitions— In naming the chords of a piece of music, when we come to a transition (however brief, and whether expressed in the " improper " or " better " method, see " How to Observe," p. 66) we treat it on the " better " method. When the transition is passing or cadential we place its chord name between round brackets, thus— CS D) or (D6 Sc D). When the transition is extended we use bridge-chords, thus — SD or I>S, &c., both in leaving the key and returning to it. In analysing a particular transition the student will first state lohere the transition is to be found, giving the name of the piece, the page, the score, and if necessary, the measure- thus, "Messiah" (T.S. edition), p. 30, sc. 3, m. 2. He will then answer the followmg questions : — 1st. What is its remove r 2nd. What are its factors ? 3rd. What is its transmutation chord, if any ? 4th. What is its extent ? 5th, What is its relation ? 6th. What is its manner of entry ? 7th. What is its object ? In giving the answers, these questions need not be repeated ; it will be sufficient to place the number of the questions before the answer. 2246. Uluslrations. — " In Jewiy," p. 149, sc. 3, m. 1 — 1st, first sharp from last key ; 2nd, customary cadential bass r s d and distinguishing-tone in S ; 3rd, 'L^R ; 4th, extended ; 5th, first sharp of prin., departing ; 6th, gradual ; 7th, effect. "In Jewi-y," p. 149, sc. 4, m. 2— 1st, first flat from last key; 2nd, the dis- tinguishing-tone / first heard on the weak part of a pulse, and again more strongly four pulses later; 3rd, l>S ; 4th, extended; 5th, prin. key, retxu-ning ; Gth, gradual ; 7th, convenience of return. "In Jewi-y," p. 150, sc. 2, m. 3— 1st, first sharp from last ; 2nd, distinguishing ( in chord of S, and customary cadential Bass; 3rd, LR; 4th, extended; 5th, first sharp of prin., departing ; 6th, gradual ; 7th, effect. " In Jewry," sc. 4, m. 3— 1st, first flat from last; 2nd, distinguishing / on weak part of pulse, and again more boldly four pulses later ; 3rd, DS ; 4th, extended ; 5th, prin. key, returning ; 6th, gradual ; 7th, convenience of return. "In Jewry," p. 152, sc. 2, m. 1— 1st, fu'st sharp from last ; 2nd, new com- mencement, especially in shape of Bass, distinguishing < in S, first appearing weakly in an inner part, afterwards more effectively on a full pulse, and with cus- tomary cadential motion of Bass; 3rd, 314 TWO-PAB.T AND THREE-PART HARMONT. BD at beginning of previous measure ; 4th, extended ; 5th, first sharp of prin., departing ; 6th, gradual ; 7th, effect. "In Jewry," p. 152, sc. 3, m. 1 — 1st, first flat from last ; 2nd, distinguishing / in F; 3rd, DS; 4th, extended; 5th, prin. key, returning ; 6th, gradual ; 7th, convenience of return. " All through," p. 102, sc. 2, m. 2— 1st, first sharp from last ; 2nd, distinguishing t in S, and customary Bass progression ; 3rd, none ; 4th, passing ; 5th, firet sharp of prin., departing ; 6th, sudden ; 7th, effect of ornamentation. " All through," p. 102, sc. 2, m. 3— 1st, first flat from last ; 2nd, distinguishing / in F ; 3rd, none ; 4th, extended ; 5th, prin. key, returning ; 6th, sndden ; 7th, effective rettim. Example, p. 107, column 2, sc. 2— 1st, second sharp from last ; 2nd, distinguish- ing I in T6, and the distinguishing-tone of the intervening key, m, in D ; 3rd, none ; 4th, cadence ; 5th, second sharp of prin., departing; 6th, gradual; 7th, for sequential effect. Example, p. 107, column 2, sc. 3— Ist, second flat from last ; 2nd, distinguishing / in '"S, and the distinguishing-tone of the intervening key d, ia T); 3rd, none ; 4th, cadence ; 5th, second flat of prin., departing; 6th, gradual; 7th, for sequen- tial effect. TENTH STEP. Three - part Harmony. Two - part Harmony. Part - pulse Incidentals. Afterstrokes, Passing, Anticipating, "Waving, Hanging, Guiding. Forestrokes, Horizontal, Oblique, Under- oblique, Waving, Unprepared, Analysis of Incidentals. 225. Tliree-part Harmony.— In all compositions, whether in three-part or four-part harmony, it is necessary — 1st, that as a general rule, neither the Eoot nor Third of a chord should be omitted ; 2nd, that the parts should have smooth progression ; and 3rd, that the parts should lie well within the compass of the voice for which they are written. But when there are only three tones in a chord (as in three-part harmony) it can seldom be made so full as when there are four tonef^ to a chord. Con- stitution 5 (see above, p. 278) will sometimes have to be employed instead of constitution 1. In cadences and other places where the habits of the ear lead us to expect a certain chord, even its Root may have to be omitted. Sometimes bare unison must bo allowed, and at other times the weak substitutional chord T must be employed instead of the full ''S, and the substitutional R instead of F. 225ft. /?;iis(ra, t against d, and / against s ; Be4i, se a^rainst I, and r against m. These coupled dissonances do not move in Thirds like the Ninth and Fourth. They consist of the "partial dissonance" of the Domi- nant Seventh "overflowing" into the Tonic, and this partial dissonance re- solves in its natiiral and habitual way, the Fourth going down and the Seventh up. In the d position the Tonic is gener- ally omitted, and that makes the chord simply one of the Dominant Seventh. The dissonances are generally, but not always, horizontally prepared. These discords are chiefly used in cadences, giving the Tonic chord the opportunity of offering a strong resistance, and then conquering. TONIC SEVENTH AND FOURTH. Ex. 133. KEY G. .f f n :t, t, d :s s ~ :s, d 74D — ^t^f^^B Ex. 134. KKY C. r' t d' .f f m :1 s — :r m — 74D6 om. Ex. 135. KEY G. t, 74D(i Ex. 136. KEY C. Lah is A, se 1 m — r' d' L. — 23W. Tonic Ninth Seventh and Fourth. — 974D, r against d, and t against d ; 9se4Z,, t against /, and se af;ainst I. Here we have not only the partial dissonance of the Dominant Seventh, but also its Fifth overflowing into the chord of the Tonic. This adds a sweet Third to the intruding chord, but makes it more difficult for the Tonic to resist, and more triumphant for it to conquer. This overflowing chord is exclusively used in cadences with the object of asserting the power of the Tonic. TONIC NINTH, SEVENTH, AND FOURTH. Ex. 137. KEY C. d 974D Ex. 138. KEY C. Lah is A. \:ni se 1 r d t 1 1, — ^^m «7 4 239m. Dominant Sixth and Seventh. — 67S, m against /, and / against s ; 67sei|f, d against r, and r against m. These coupled dissonances are dissonant with one another, and are never placed at primary distance. The Sixth generally displaces the Fifth, and has both Boot and Third consonant with it. Were it not for the Seventh it might often be in- terpreted as the Root of the chord, except that mode relation regards the Third of the mode as a bad and useless tone for the Root of a chord. The Sixth being so strongly supported by consonance, the Seventh is felt to be the chief dissonance. The Sixth, when there is no Fifth in the chord, may leap to the Tonic in the next chord, but it is most commonly resolved in its own chord— the Seventh waiting for it, and then resolving on the Tonic chord. The Sixths and Sevenths are thus like the Sevenths and Fourths in their "successive resolution. Both the dissonances may be unprepared. They are used both in and out of cadences for their own beautiful effect. The last resolution like that of the Dominant Seventh alone may be on the "surprise cadence," pp. 304 and 327. 334 DOMINANT SIXTH AND SEVENTH. STTPEETONIC SEVENTH, DOMINANT SIXTH AND SEVENTH Ex. 139. KEY G. m r d t, t, d f f m ^k 8, d Ex. 140. KET G. PI r d 8, — Sl f — m 67SJ — d Ex. 141. KET C. m' T< d' a — s t — d' f S78d — m Ex. 142. KEY G. f f m t, — d s — s n «7S« r d Ex. 143. KEY G. d 240. Dominant Resolntion. — The chords which most easily move into the Dominant (carrying a dissonance to its resolution) are the Supertonic and Subdominant with Sevenths, the Tonic with a Sixth, and the Dominant itself with Fourths and Ninths or Seconds. There are also several coupled dissoaances which resolve on the Dominant. 240ft. Supertonic Seventh. — 'E, r against d; ''T, I against t. This is a chord which •ometunea raises the question, "Which is the dissonance ? " This question can only be answered by noticing which is prex>ared and resolyed. (Compare par. SE7F.NTU ON SUBDOMINANT. F017ETH ON DOMINANT. 335 239/). Thus in the first example, which is from Meudolssohn, tlie d is both pre- pared and resolved, although with delayed resolution ; the composer has provided for it the " path of a dissonance." The r comes in as the Koot of a chord without preparation, and it needs no resolution. Compare with the Subdominant Sixths above, p. 330. Ex SUPEKTONIC SEVENTH. 149. KEY C. :d' f : :m 1 : d' d' : 1 r : - .f |rn' - .1 IS - .d' Id' - .r |s i J J- J^ J- e=i=^ Ex. 150. KEY C. d' :t d' 1 -.3 m r' :r' d' f :s 'E6 d ^#^ ^^ AA.S ^^ Ex. 151. KEY G. :d r — :s, f, — '.m r — :d d 'Ed t. Ex. 152. KEY C. Lah is A. 1 1 :se 1 m f -.r d :d' r' :t 1 d t, :in 1, ^P^ Ex. 153. KEY C. Lah is A. d' t :- t m f :- m 1 1 :- se :d r :- m 240c. Suhdominant Seventh. — 'F, m against /; '-ff, d against r. This dis- sonance being semitonic must not be pi-imary. It nearly always has its resist- ing-tone in the Bass. It is sometimes used as a hoi-izontal forestroke, but more often as a full-pulse passing-tone. In this last form with secondary or tertiary distance it is not unpleasant. SUBDOMINANT SEVENTH. Ex. 154. KEY G. d d ti s, 1, s, m m r d f. 8, 1 om. i Ex. KEY C t 155. .Lah 1 is A. se \ f f PI } r' d' t { r r m i40d. Dominant Fourth. — *S, d against r ; ^J/, I against t. Like the Tonic Fourth this dissonance displaces the Third of its chord ; but its perfect self-resolution and its horizontal preparation apologise for its harshness, and it is commonly heard as a primary forestroke. DOMn^ANT FOURTH. Ex. 156. KEY C. d' d' t s s — n' r' — d s — 4S A A ip^ 336 9 AND 9, 4 AND 9, 7 ON DOMINANT. Ex. 157. KET D. Lah is B. V.d' 483 240e. Dominant Ninth.— ^S, I against t ; 98eJ/, / against se. This dissonance more often appears in the chord of the Sub- tonic, where it strikes as a Seventh. See above, p. 328. In the Dominant Ninth the Root must be at a secondary or ter- tiary distance. In other words, it rarely appears as a Second, and then commonly as a waving-tone resolving upwards. DOMINANT NINTH. Ex. 158. KEY C. »S Ex. 159. KEY C. t 1 :t s 8 :s r' r' :r' 8 8 98 :f Ex KEY f . 160. F. Lah is D. f :in t, t, :r 1 se :se r m :i>i 240f. Dominant Ninth and Fourth. — MS, I against s, and d against r ; ba4j/, Ja against m. In this coupled-dissonance not only may the Fourth be primary, but the Ninth also— occurring as a second. It can be used as a horizontal forestroke, but it is chiefly used passing or waving for convenience of smooth melodies. Both the dissonances sometimes have opward resolution. DOMINANT NINTH AND FOUETH. Ex. 161. KEY G. r r r t, 1, s, r d t, S| J' s, B 2i> Ex. 162. KEY C. S 2to Ex. 163. KEY C. Lah is A. m :ba :se :n :m se :1 :t PI ',ti\ :m Jf chr.p P Ex. 164. KEY C. Lah is A se ba :se m — :m t 1 :t m — :ni chr.ta J=S< ^y^ ^^pB ' I ' 8 «2 240^'. Dominant Ninth and Seventh.— 97S, I against t and s, and / against s; 978ejf, y against 771, and r against TO. The percussion of the Ninth in this case can be Primary — that is, as a Second — but is generally secondary or tertiary. The dis- cord is commonly used as a forestroke, but not necessarily prepared. The Ninth is self-resolved, and the Seventh moves on to the Tonic, unless it is desired to make a surprise cadence — when it resolves on the Submediant. In the Minor Mode, when smoothness of melody requires it, ba is used, passing or waving, instead of/. This discord is used for its own pleasant effect. This coupled dissonance might have been classed under the heading of "Tonic resolution," but it conies mote naturally after the Dominant Ninth. ' 9, 7, 4 ON DOMINANT. 4, 7 ON SUPERTONIC. 337 DOMINANT NINTH AND SEVENTH. Ex. 165. KEY P. s 1 s s .d t, - d ;m f - m •.d s, 97S - d Ex. 166. KET G. s 1 :s d' ;d t, :- d :m f :- Kl :d s, :- 1, Ex. 167. KEY G. S| 1. t, d s, S| - S| m f - m d Sl - d Ex. 168. KEY Q. Lah is E. m f :ni se,:- rn ;d r ;- d -.1, m, :- 9736 j)/ 1, Ex. 169. KEY G. Lah isE. in f -.m 1 ;i, se,:- 1, :d r ;- d :1, n, :- f, J=^ "I I PI Ex. 170. KEY D. Lah is B. PI ba :se 1 m m : - m d' Ir' :- d' 1 1 m :- 1, 240A Dominant Ninth, Seventh, and Fourth.— ^'''^S, I ag'ainst s, and / against s; '"■'il/, / against m, and r against m. The Fourth in each case is an intruder into tlie chord, but not dissonant. Like the Tonic Ninth, Seventh, and Fourth, this discord displaces everything hut the Root. It cannot, however, like that dis- cord be used for a weak pulse cadence, because the Seventh would not get Tonic resolution, and it is not necessai-ily an " overflow " from the previous chord. It is used for its own solemn effect. Like the last, its final resolution is Tonic. DOMINANT NINTH, SEVENTH, AND FOURTH. Ex. 171. KEY C. -a l-r-J 1- .d' d' :t d' :i»i f :- m :b 1 :s s 1 •.d s, :- 974S d 1 Ex. 172. KEY D :t Ex. 173. KEY C. Lah is A .1 1 :se 1 .m f :m m •.d' r' :- d' :1 m :- 1 Ex. 174. KEY F. Lah is D. 1 |1 :se I I d I 1 I f. I f :in ^^m UOj Superlonic Fourth and Seventh^ '«R, s against I, and r against rf. In this coupled-dissonance the Fourth displaces the Third. The resolution is not on tne Dominant but on the D..minant Seventh. The discord is used for its own solemn effect. It is more harsh with the beventn in the Bass. Y 38ft SEVENTH OX TOXIC. SUPERTONIC FOUBTH & SE\'^NTH. Ex. 175. ketF m s ~.f m d d t, d s 1 s s m r S| d 74E Ex. 176. ketF. 1 m S f f \ m r - r 1 s 1 - s { d d :- 74E :s, S| f, :ni d d d. in 7D6 f, ^m m^ Ex. 1 79. ketC. 1 t :1 m m :f d' d' :d' 1 s :f m 7Dc Ex. 180. KEY G. f f, d t, :1, 7Dl Ex. 181. KEY C. Lah is A. d 1 1, Ex. 1S2. KEY C. Lah is A. 1 s f m — f 1 — 1 d — r Lb P Ex. 183. KEY F. Lah isD. 1 se 1 1 d — d 1 — 1 (n — f Le chr. w. 4 on SFBDOMrNANT. 9 ON DITTO. 9, 7 ON TONIC. 339 Ex \M. KEr C. Lah is A d' — r m — 1 1 — 1 1 s f Ld p 241c. Subdominant Fourth. — ^1^,1 Bigaxast d ; *R, 8 against I. This gives us the same dissonance in another chord. It is seldom primary. It may have horizontal, oblique, or waving preparation. In the Major it sometimes resolves upward. Like the other Fourths, it is always self-resolved. It has a somewhat piquant effect. SUBDOMINANT FOUETH. Ex. 185. KEY C. :d' :s *7| I J^A. ^m Ex. 186. KBY C. d' t d' ( f — f ] d' — d' ( 1 — 1 Ex. 187. KEY P. Lah is D. :1 s f .d r — :1 1 — 1. r — Ex. 188. KBY G. Lah is E. Be 2iid. Subdominant Ninth. — ''F, s against / and I ; ^B, m against r and /. This Ninth sometimes occurs as a Second re- solving upward. Its preparation may be horizontal or waving. Like the other Ninths, it is generally relf -resolved, but in this case it sometimes resolves on the Supertonic. It is little used. SUBDOMINANT NINTH Ex. 189. KEY D. S s :f d d : — d' m 1 :- i - 1 KX. 190. KEY C. / 1 3 :1 1 f — :f 1 d' - :di f - :f Ex. 191. KEY F. :3 s f d 1, 1. s I 1 m f 9F r Ex KEY C d'.l 192. !. Lah f is A. m m r 1 1 - 1, r — mm mm 2iU. Tonic X'nth and Seventh.— ^''B, r agaiust d, and t against d. These coupled- dissonances are generally horizontally pre- pared on a strong pulse, but may be taken passing or waving on a weak pulse. They are seldom primary. The corresponding Minor would introduce an unmelodic pro- gression of se to /, and is therefore not used with this resolution. But it is oc- casionally used resolving on the Tonic. TONIC NINTH AND SEVENTH. Ex. 193. KEY C. .r' r' d' :s m f t t 1 s d f 340 7 ON SUB3IEDIANT. 4 OS StTPEETONIC. 9 ON DITTO. Ex 194. KEY C. d' :t 1 ( m :r d j s : — 1 ( m : — f ^m Ex. 195. KEY U. / s — * \ n r n d' — d' d k, 1> 2j» 242. Snpertonic Resolution.— If resolution on the Sub- dominant is little used, so also is that on its Substitutional, the Supertouic. The chief of these dissonances are the Submediant Seventh, the Supertonic Fourth, the Supertonic Ninth, and the Snpertonic Ninth and Fourth. 2426. Submediant Seventh.— ''L, s against I; ''F, m against /. This dissonance is generally a horizontal forestroke resolv- ing on the Supertonic, but it sometimes resolves on the Subtonic, and is some- times self-resolved as a passing-tone. SUBMEDIANT SEVEITOH. Ex. 196. KEY G. :s s f :d d 1, :i»i m f :d 1 r Ex. 197. KEY C. S 1 :t :3 s :f d' m' :r' :m d 'L6 :r Ex. 198. KEY C. s 1 1 ;r m r ;t d' 1 :s 3 f 1 Ex KEY :m . 199. C.Lai 1 lis A •.n m r •A' d' t .1 :1 f - ^mm ^ ^=- ^F 2^20. Supertonic Fourth. — *E, s against I. This is the same dissonance as the last in another chord. The corresponding INIinor would introduce both partial and Semitonic dissonance, ■which would be too much. SUPERTONIC FOURTH. Ex. 200. s 1, 1 •.a KEY F. f Ex. 201. KEY G. J — I- -3^— g= :d r — 1 d 1, — ' :s s f :ni, f, 4Ri — ^^ f^ 2i2d. Supertonic Ninth. — "E, m against r and /. This is a hard dissonance, and but little used. The awkward Supertonic of the Minor would create consecutive Fifths in the natural progression of its Fifth and Ninth. SUPERTONIC NINTH. Ex. 202. KEY G. m f 1 m m r d 1 f •1, r. f, 9, 4 ON SUPERTONIC. SEQUENCE OF SEVENTHS. 3-11 Ex. aOS. KB7 c. :s Ex. 1 f "Eft om. 204. KEr Q. r-- g^^ i^ r : — 1, 1. : — 1 f : — r if. •.m, f, Ex. /:ni i:s Resolved on DominantiSeventh. 205. KEY F. m r 1, t, f f f, s. 9R6 om. 242e. Supertonic Ninth and Fourth. — "^F, s against / and I, and m against /. These are the hist two dissonances coupled. This chord is chiefly used in its b position, in which the Eoot is omitted. On this account it may faMy bo taken for a Subdominant NiiiUi and Seventh, but we prefer to call it Supertonic Ninth and Fourth for the symmetry of teaching ; that is, we take the single dissonance first, and then couple them. In "How to Observe" and "Construction Exer- cises " the other form of naming is used. There is the same objection to a coiTes- ponding Minor which was mentioned under the Supertonic Ninth. SUPERTONIC NINTH AND FOURTH. Ex.206. ketF. S s f m m r :s 1 — :n f »R h — Ex. 207. KEY F. Lah is D. m m :r :d d :t, :1 f :f :d r UTb :r 243. Sequence of Sevenths.— In addition to the various forms of Sequence shown above, pp. 205 to 207, the pleasant and commonly used sequence of Sevenths should be noticed. In these sequences the horizontal preparation is always used, even for the Dominant Seventh and the Subtonic Seventh. Chords are used for the sake of the sequential effect which would otherwise be avoided, such as the " unmeaning chord " on the Mediant. The Subtonic a position is excused because of the dissonance itself, but is better still in a sequence. 243&. Illustration.— The dissonance may be taken on either the weak or strong accent. See " How to Observe," p. 107. SEQUENCE OF SEVENTHS. Ex. 208. KEY C. m' m' :r' |r' d' d' :t Id d' 1 :1 13 s f :f \m s' f :f' |m' m' r' :r' Id d' f -.t 'F 'T \m ■•u 1 r :s 'S Id J -\ — 1—1- I I I I I ._- — -_ .«- ^. .^ i A A J. J. ^ 7 7 342 OEGAN-POINT OE PEDAL. 244. Persisting Tones and Organ-Point.— The drones of the Bagpipe and the Hurdy-gurdy are extreme cases, showing how the Tonic or Dominant of a tune can be endured when held on persistingly, without consideration of consonance or dissonance. In good music a little of this " droning " is quite acceptable to the cultivated ear, which always desires the asser- tion of the Tonic and Dominant. When the persistence of Tonic or Dominant does not extend beyond a single measure, we call it " persisting " (abbreviated " pers.") d or s, and in the Minor 1 or n. When the persistence is carried further, it is commonly called an "Organ-point" or "Pedal." It is called an Organ- point because it is sometimes introduced in an Organ accompani- ment without being given in the voice parts, tbe Organ being specially adapted for the sustaining of very long tones. It is called Pedal because its most frequent use is in the low Bass which is played on the pedals of the Organ. It may, however, be introduced in one of the upper parts, when it is called an " Inverted Pedal." These persisting-tones may be either one continuous tone or that tone repeated. The Tonic is most frequently used, but the Dominant is often employed, and some- times both are-heard together, or the Bass is doubled in an upper part. In these last cases the Pedal is called a double one. Occasionally (especially in instrumental music) the Tonic pedal is struck only upon the strong or medium accents, the Dominant being touched on the intermediate accents. See " How to Observe," p. 121. In the close of a great piece of music, especially a Fugue, the pedal is used to assert the key. See Albrechtsberger's Fugue, p. 224, where a Dominant pedal falls on to the Tonic in its close. Quite as frequently a long Tonic pedal concludes the piece. The harmony must be complete apart irom the pedal, and must have a good Bass of its own. In analysing the harmonies we disregard the pedal-tone, but place the analysis between square brackets. Thus in Ex. 209 the second chord is CDS] not ''Dc, and in Ex. 211 the second is [S&] not ^'Di. Change of key is rarely allowed in pedal passages lest it should destroy the character or modal relation of the pedal itself. 244J. Illvstrations. — Ex. 209. Dominant Peilal, KEY F. :d It Id |m 1 8, I 'Dip F f jm t, |d r 11, s, js, 'Si 'Sc L 1 s d t, f f s, s, • :r :S| :t, :s, SJ] fc^^ ANALYSIS OF FULL-PULSE DISCOKDS. 343 Ex. 210. Tonic Pedal. f jm t, Id s {s d |d V V -^ Jill I I f— r — r— r— r~i*- F=^F=^ Ex. 211. Inverted Pedal. KEY C. d' |d' s |s m' |r' d' :d' |d' r :1 |s t ;t Id' s :f \m [S5 L S 'Tc Bb lb] J 1 \-r~i \ d' d' f m t d' r d ^3p^ 1— J-r--J- ■J- J J I I I I I 245. Analysis of Dissonances.— There are several important points to notice about the tone that intrudes into a concord. The first is, into what chord does it intrude; second, against what constituent of that chord does it beat ; and third, what constituent, if any, does it displace ? In analysing a particular dissonance the student will answer the following eight questions : — 1st. What is its Percussion? — as, "against Boot," or "against Fifth, displacing Third." 2nd. What is its Distance or Degree of Dissonance ? — as, "Primary," "Secondary," &c. 3rd. What is its Accent ? — as, " Forestroke," or " Afterstroke." 4th. What is its Preparation ? — as, h, o, u, &c. 5th. What is its Resolution ? — as, " on Third of D," or "on 5th of Z," &c. 6th. What is its Chord Relation? — as, "Dominant to Tonic," or "Tonic self -resolved," &c. 7th. What is its Place in the chord? — as, "Seventh," "Fourth," &c. 8th. What is its Object? — as "Effect of dissonance," or "Con- venience of parts," &c. 2i5&. Analysis of Discords. — In naming the chords of a piece of music, when we come to a forestroke dissonance we always distinguish it from an afterstroke disson- ance by a figure, thus — "S, •'D, &c. Its apology, as Horizontal, (h) Oblique (o), Upward Oblique (u o), Waving (wf), Unprepared (u), is written in small letters underneath the chord name. The after- stroke dissonances are expressed by their initial letters only : — Passing Tone (p) "Waving Tone (w), Guiding Tone ((/), Hanging Tone (h). In ^S, 'T, ''R, 7seM, ''SE, ''T, and the chromatic discords formed on the dominants of the relative keys we include the number of the dis- sonance in the name whether the discord is a forestroke or an afterstoke, but do not state the preparation apology of Ti, p, &c. 344 THIRTEENTH STEP. Chroilatic Tones. Chromatic Resolutiox of Chords. Chkohatic Chords related to the First Sharp Remove. Ditto First Flat Remove. Ditto Third Flat Remove. Unrelated Chrom-^tics. 246. Chromatic Tones. — When, after the occurrence of a tone " altered " (see above, pp. 9, 14, and 64) by flat or sharp, the original key is instantly re-asserted by its principal tones iij melody, or its principal chords in harmony, the ear feels that the altered tone did not change the key. It had, however, its owti peculiar momentary flashing effect, and this is called Chromatic. It may be felt even in melody when the altered tones are intro- duced as merely ornamental waving, or passing tones, and when the melody immediately returns to the principal tones of the old key. These tones, "altered" without changing the key, are called Chromatic tones. 2466. lUustrations. — The following phrases will show how the key is asserted even by melody, in spite of the chromatic tones which threatened a change. Ex. 212. KEY G. I s, .n :ri .,re|i»i Is, .f ;f .,m If .fe Is II ^- ^^^^^^^^^^ &c Ex. 213. KEY C. I Im :re;ni |8 :fe :s Id' :- :8 in ; 1 :se:l |t :le:t Id' : UQc. The word " Chromatic." —The word "chromatic" means "coloured." The Greeks are said to have used a coloured string on their lyre for a sharp- ened or flattened tone. The word is now applied figuratively to " the glowing emotional feeling" introduced into our modem music. 247. ChJOmatic Resolution.— In harmony the word " Chro- matic " has a distinct technical meaning. A chromatic chord is distinguished from a chord of transition or modulation. The chord in itself may be precisely the same as that which changes the key or mode ; but it differs in its Resolution. It resolves, not in some new key or mode, but in some characteristic chord of the old key. AVith a few exceptions, to be presently named, all the chromatic chords are related to some transitional chord of the first or third remove. They excite the momentaiy expectation of departure to a new key, and then agreeably disappoint it by a closer embrace of the old key. The more FIRST SHAEl' CUKOJIATICS. 345 commoulj used— 'tlie more familiar to the ear — is the transitioua. chord, the more effective will be its chromatic resolution. Henco it is that the chromatic chords most employed are those which stand related to the commonest transitional chords. 2476. Dr. Macfnrren is the master of modem chromatic music. In his " Six Lectures on Harmony," delivered at the Royal Institution, he has developed and illustrated the subject very fully. The most complete practical exhibition of the powers of these chords which he has written is given in his " Sentences to illustrate Chromatic Chords," wliich were written for Part H of Mr. Curwen's "Commonplaces of Music." The learner, however, must not be misled into the notion that chromatic harmony occupies anything like the space and place in actual music 'which it fills in instruc- tion books. We are obliged to explain chords and resolutions, although they may be very rarely found useful by the composer. 247c. niustralinna. — Below are given the principal "related chromatics," first with their transitional resolution, and next with their commonest chromatic resolutions. 247(i. Related to the First Sharp Eemove. tereT. Ex. 214. KKV Eft (Lah is C), to Bb. m ;re m d :t, t, 1 :fe s 1, :t, m, Ex. 215. KEY EB. Lah is C. m :re r d :t, t, 1 :fe m 1, :t, se. ferey Ex. 216. KEY F. Lah is D. r :re m 1, :t, d f :fe 1 r :t, m 7 tereT. Ex. 217. KEY G (Lah is E), to D. 1:1, re :m 1, :S| fe ;m t, :m, Ex. 218. KEY G. Lah is E. Ex. 219. KEY C. Lah is A. ;:i 1 :1 1 \:[ii fe :ni l:d' t :d' 7 re :m fere 77) This chord can be used in the c position, 7ieRE. Ex. 220. KEY G (Lah is E) to D. m :fe m 1, :1, s. d :d t, m, :re, PI, Ex. 221. KEY G. Lah is E. This chord can be used in the b position. :se, :t, re, :r, 7teRE 1 '7 I 346 FIRST FLAT CHEOMATICS. Ex. 222. KEY G. m fe m 1, 1, 1, d d d •.m, re. ^, This chord can be used in b, c, and d positions. 247«. delated to the First Flat Remove. TA. This is a "Major Common Chord." See above, p. 276. In the h position the Sixth (r up to to) has a striking effect, and the chord has been called ''the Neapolitan Sixth " — the Sixth being, however, a simple "Minor Sixth" like?: to/- It is chiefly used with Minor resolution. Ex. 22; KBT C, to F. 1 :r' de' f :f 1 r' :r m' r :ta 1 Ex. 2-_'4. KEY C. Lah f :ta is A. se f :f m 1 :r' r r :tai TA t Ex. 225. KEY D. Lah is B. f :ta 1 f :f m 1 :r' d' r :ta, tn, Ex. 226. KEY F. Lah is D. 1 ta :se d ta, :t, :in f '.m :1, r :rn Ex. 227. KEY F. Lah is D. :1 ta :1 :d r :d ■.m f '.m :1, r :m laRA. This chord is placed here because it is the corresponding Major to the chord above. Its transitional relation is that of the third flat remove from TA. It is much less used. In its second position it also has the name of Neapolitan Sixth. Ex. 228. KEY D. d' la :s m f :t, s f ;f d 1 ra :r aRA 229. KEY &. ra t, la, S| f f f, S| laRA* , 230. KEY G. d ra d s, la s, m f m d f, S| i^pp taD. 231. KEY G, to C. m ;ri f d :ta. ii s ;s f d :d f, -1-n Ex. 2.32. KEY B!j, res. on 7ieR. n ta, fe 1, d d d t d aD r, ^[^ .•!_•. ^¥P Ex. 233. KEY F. m :m f d :ta, t s :s s d •.d r This chord can be used in b, c, and d positions. FIRST FLAT CnKOMATICS. 347 Ex. 2S4. KEY C (Lah ia A) to F. Ex. 235. KEY C. Lah is A 7dei. Ex. 236. KEY a (Lah is E), to C. 1 :s f r :de r f :m r r :1. r Ex. 237. KEY a. Lah is E. de 1, 7deL Fx 238 KKY 6 Lah is A, res. on TtereT. d' de' re' m s fe 1 1 1 1. 1, ti This chord can be used in the b, c, and '. positions. 1 :ta 1 in :n f 1 :s f d :de r Ex. 240. KEY D. Lah is B. It m de ta.DE Ex. 241. KEY D Lah is B, ^es. on 7 feRE. se s fe m ni re t ta 1 r de d This chord can be used in the 6, c, and d positions. rataM. Ex. 242. KEY D, to G.„ . te3= / s :s f \ d :ra» d j d' :ta 1 [ m •.m f Ex. 243. KEY D. s : s s d :ra r d' :ta t n :m f rataM Ex. 244. KEY C, res. on 7 feRE. .1 ta •.1 :1 s :fe :d' ra' ■A< ;f m :re This chord can be used in the 6, c, and d positions. Ex. 245. ^DE KEY BC. Lah isG. 1. t, :t, 1. s. -.se, :d de :r ••f, in, •.m. w I. 1 ^ -I J^ B6 5 This chord can be used in the a and e positions. •Commonly written "ra"with Major resolution, and with Minor leaolution, as iu last chord, "de. 348 FIRST FLAT CHROMATICS. 247/, Related to the Third Flat Remove. laT. Ex. 246. KEY F, to A*. I la :s ^^m Ex. 243. KEY F. 1 :1a Is d :r m f :f \m 1, :t, d bi This chord can be used in the h, c, and d positions. Ex. 249. KEY G, to BI2. Ex. 252. KEY C. 7laR 3^iS §1 Ex. 253. KEY C. fel s :1a s d :d d s :f s ni :r m «? -•- -«- -m- ^^h Ex. 254. KEY F. j S f fe \ d d d ) m la 1 \ d r ma This chord can be used in the 6, c, and d positions. This chord cannot be used in other positions. Ex. 251. KEY G, to Bb. la I s d I ta, f |s r ma This chord can be used in the 6 and c positions. maT.A, Ex. 257. KEY C, to A&. :t d' :ta 1 :S m :ma :r' d' :s :8, la, :ma ITALIAN, 6ERUAN, AND FRENCH SIXTHS. 349 Ex. 258. KEY C. t :d' S s :ma m r' :d' d' 8 :1a s maLA This chord can be used in the 6 position. 24^5'. Unrvlated- Chromatics. — The prin- cipal chromatic chords which have no "transitional relation," are those wliidi contain an "Augrmented Sixth." It is showTi above pp. 14 and 9) that the Aug- mented Sixth has forty-three index de- grees, and is, therefore, less than a Minor Seventh with forty-foitr degrees. It has nothing to correspond with it in the com- mon scale. It disturbs the sense of key without suggesting transition. It has a peouli.ar effect in chromatic resolution. The Sixth is the same in all chords of the Augmented Sixth—/ up to re' in the Minor, and la up to fe' in the Major^ but the cliords differ in their other con- stituents. Wlien the lower tone of the Auynit-nted Sixth is accompanied by a Major Third (as / to I, or la to d') a certain effect is produced, and the chord is called the "Italian Sixth." When, in addition to this, a Perfect Fifth is added (as la, to ma) a different effect is pro- duced, and the chord is called the " Ger- man Sixth." When, instead of adding a Perfect Fifth, wo add a Pluperfect Fourth (/ up to t, or la up to r', see above, p. 11 j yet another effect is pro- duced, and the chord is called the " French Sixth." It may be that these chords were first used in the different countries mentioned. Dr. Macfarren sug- gests that there is " something character- istic of the .softness of the Italian nature" in the first chord, of " the bold decision of the German " in the second chord, and of " the piquancy of the French " in the third chord. Five other unrelated chords are added to these, but they are very little used. The Italian Sixth in Minor. It can also be used with I in the Bass. Ex. 259. KEY D. Iiah is B. I se r :re m 1 t f re/.' m Ex. 260. KEY D. Lah is B I 1 1 r re m 1 1 d' £ f m ^giU The Italian Sixth in Major. It can also be used with d in the Bass. Ex. 261. KEY C. d' d' t f fe s d' d' r' 1 :1a teT,A s Ex. 262. KEY C. d' :d' m' f :fe s d' :d' d' 1 :1a s fe maLA. The German Sixth in Major. The cor- responding Minor {/ I d' re') is little used. This chord can be used with d or ma in the Bass. Ex. 263. KEY G. d :d d f, :fe, s, r :nia m 1. :1a. S| 4feLA. The French Sixth in the Major. It can also be used with d or r in the Bass. Ex. 264. KEY C. d' d' :t s fe :3 .d' r' :r' :iri 4 la ;s feLA 35U FRENCH SIXTH. Ex. 265. KBY F. I f :r I m Id -.d j d !f :fe 3 1, .'la Is, m 1 J liii ^=1 The French Sixth in the Minor. It can also be used with lor tin the Bass. Ex. 26fJ. KEV C. Lah ifl A. 1 :1 r •.re 1 •.t f :f 1 Ex. KKV C 1 267. .Lah 1 is A. 1 r re m 1 t d' f f m 8RA. Ex. 268. KRY F. r s s t, t, d f f m r ra d Ex. 269. Ki'.v F. r f m t, t, d f f s r ra d Ex. 270. KEY C. t t t la la s r' f f r B ra aEA r Wi Ex. 271. KRY F. Lah ia D. f r se t, ta, 4seTA ^M 7»e/>. Ex. 272. KBY C. Lah is A. 86 d 7»»D ' 7 15 (gitcstians Asked in various Public Examinations. These questions are arranged in the order of teaching in the present work, so that the candidate will pass from tho more easy to the more diflBcult. The references to our own book for explana- tion are placed between round brackets, and various helpful suggestions for the Tonic Sol-fa candidate are placed between square brackets. JNote that the questions on Chromatic Chords and Counter- point, which are placed last, will not be needed for the Second Year Examinations in Training Colleges and the College of Preceptors. As most of these examination Papers are in the Staff Notation, the candidate is strongly recommended to copy the examples under every question into that notation before he begins to write the answer. Nothing teaches notation like the pen. The little work " Staff Notation " is especially prepared for Tonic Sol-faists wishing to master that notation. Each notation has its points of advantage for the study of Harmony, and it has been found of great advantage that all students, whether in the Staff or Tonic Sol-fa notations, should write their exercises in both notations. The marked success of our Tonic Sol-fa students in Examin- ations of this kind in past years strongly confirms tho doctrine of our preface, that " When the truths of Music itself have been once plainly set before the mind, the difficulties of complex notation or antiquated nomenclature are easily conquered." FIRST STEP. 1. Which notes of the scale hear Major Thirds ? [Soe p. 10, %. 21, and Index of Degrees, p. 9. In answering the Sol-fa questions, it is better to name the tones of the scale, as d, r, m, &c. ; in answering the Staff Notation question, it is better to name them as Is*., 2nd, 3rd, &c., of the gcale.] (351) 2. "Which of the following chords is iu the best position ? Which is in the worst ' 352 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. ["Position" in these questions means " Distribution." See pars. ISib, and 159a and c. Let the student read the distribution of the first chord upward and (not forgetting the paragraph about octave marks, 24e) he will find it to be " Fifth-Eleventh-Third." The great gap between T. and C. contradicts the rule of equal distribution. And if the student turns to p. 22, and places the lowest tone of the Bass on C-one, he will find that though the other tones come within proper range for the voices, the C. d' would be screaming. The distribution of the next chord is " Tenth-Sixth-Fifth," which soimds rather better, because the largest interval is the lowest, but tested by p. 22, not only is the C. but also the 8. at its highest stretch of pitch. The distribution of the chord which follows reads "Third-Thirteenth-Fifth." It is by far the worst ; for it has the same objection as the last in the S. and C, and adds also a misplaced — extremely low — T. It also breaks the rule against a Third low in pitch. The last chord has for distribution " Fifth-Sixth-SLxth." The very naming of the distribution shows that it is good ; it also places each " part" well within the range of the voices, and is, therefore, the best.] 3. Follow each of the chords below by the same chord in a better position. KEY C. 1' r' f t, d s f, f, 8, 8, [Let the student analyse the first chord for distribution, and he will find the faults to be a low Third and a great gap between T. and C. To mend the case he can either make the T. « and the C. ni, or he can simply raise the T. an octave. In studying the next chord, let him place the /i against the Fa on p. 22 he will then find that d is too low for the T., that one-/ is out of range of the C, and one-l is out of reach for an ordinary S. He will see the faults more clearly when he analyses the distribution. To mend the case he can take one-/ for S, I for C, and raise the T. an Octave, or he can put one-d in the 8., / in the C, and I in the T. In the last chord, directly the student reads " Eighth-Third-Tenth," he will know that the fault is in the upper parts. If he compares the chord with p. 22 he will find all the parts are within range, but not equally distributed. For im- provement he can take t for S., and r for C, or he can keep r' for S., take s for C, and t for T.] 4. "Write the common chord of F in four parts, in the two best positions you can. [This is a Staff Notation question. In answering such questions it is better to use short score, fig. 40, p. 24, unless distinctly told to use the full vocal score, fig. 38, p. 24. Placing: then a crochet or minim on the f ovirth line of the Bass clef from the bottom (see p. 22), the student finds that that tone stands well for the Bass. He can call it d (unless he prefers to call it /or s), and he wUl immediately see that s placed on middle-C would suit very well for the T., that d placed on F comes into the middle of the C. voice, and wj on A is well placed for the S. But as his lowest tone F stands high in pitch there will be no objection to iaa having a Third at the bottom of his chord ; he could, therefore, place his T. m on A, his C. s-one on middle-C, and his 8. d on F. Other distributions will suggest them- selves, as for example, d-one on Fj, s on middle-C, m on A, and one-/ on F'.] 5. Write each of the Major chords of the key of G in two good positions. [For Major chords see above, par, 157. The Modulator, p. 50, will show the young student that d, /, and s in key G are G, C, and D. Turning then again to p. 22, he wili try to place D in key G in a good distribution. Indeed the Tonic Sol-fa student should use the diagram on p. 22 until he has fixed it all on his mind's eye, and could copy it down at any moment. After a time he should practise to do this without lookicg at the book. He can take his d either on Gj or G|. He will take care, as directed above, 1st, to place his voices within good range, and, 2nd, to secure a tolerably good distribution of interval. Having written two such distributions for D, he will do the same for F and S.] SECOND STEP. 6. Follow each of the following dis- sonances by its resolution. KEY C. KEY F. KEY O. r' I f I f d' I S| I t, (See par. 172 J.) 7. "Write the discord of the Dominant Seventh and its resolution (perfect ca- dence) in the keys of C {do), D (re), E& {mi'a), and F (/a). Dr. Hullah stiU con- tinues to use the Sol-fa syllables (which in their Italian spelling are do re mi fa, sol la si) as equivalente for the letters C D E F G A B. As, however, he always gives us the old letters for pitch tones we can disregard the syDables in brackets. See pars. 176, 177. Even in the Tonic Sol-fa Notation this would be written differently in the higher and in the lower keys, in order to suit the proper range of the voices. Try for the two lower keys '8, distributed Fifth-Third-Tritone, and for the two higher ones 'S, distributed Seventh-Tritone-Third . Several other distributions are equally good. It will be easy to transfer these to the Staff Notation.] EXAMINATION aUESTIONS. 353 8. Give two examples of the prepara- tion and resolution, in dififerent ways, of the Dominant Seventh in tlie key of G Major. [The student may prepare him- self for the different preparations of 'S by writing out the three cases in Exs. 4,5.] FOURTH STEP. 9. What are conseciitives, and why are they forbidden? [See above, pars. 188, 190. An Octave or a Fifth in one chord followed by the same interval and between the same parts, in the next cliord make " consecutives." Such Octaves are forbidden because of the blending and obliteration of parts ; such Fifths for the same reason, and also because of their harshness.] 10. Correct the followinsr progressions without altering the first chord of either, or the Bass of the second of either. .» KEY C. ;t d' :r' / d m :f \ 1 s :1 m d :r 1 [ 1 [In the first case it is ob-vious that the )•' and I must be altered. If instead of 7-1 we take /' the leap would be consider- able ; perhaps I better obeys Rule 8. There is no objection to oiu- changing the T. I into /, because we are allowed to double the Thirds of Minor chords. In the second case both s and ?-i must be altered. Instead of r' we can have s'. Instead of s we can have t. But this makes it necessary to have a third alter- ation, as this chord cannot have a double Third, we, therefore, change the S. t into r'.] FIFTH STEP. 11. Write and figure the common chord of S in two or three different posi- tions. [This is found among the Tonic Sol-fa questions ; so the word " position" may be taken in the Sol-fa sense. In answering the question we should write Sa with two or three distributions suitable to the voices, then S6 with the same, and then Sc with the same.] 12. Write, and figure the Bass, of each of the inversions of the common chord of G {sol) in two or three different positions. [By position here must be understood distribution, and we have only the "in- versions {b and c positions) before us. For figm-ed Basses, see above, par. 183c, and Exs. 8 to 11. G may be taken as the chords D or F or S. Taldng it as D we draw a double stave for short score. The Root of the chord would be on the first (or lowest) line of the Bass stave, but to write i)J we want not the Root in the Bass, but the Third. We, therefore, place a note on the second line of the Bass stave. Taking that for our Base note, we distribute our chord carefully for the voices. Taking again the same Bass note we make another distribution, and again another. To write Dc we must place our Bass note (s) on the third line of the Bass stave. On this note we raise two or three different distributions.] 13. Shew the Dominant Seventh in the key of Ab, and also give its inversions in the same key. [Having drawn the double stave and written the sfgnatures, the Tonic Sol-faist knows that the key-tone is in the first space of the Bass stave, and the Dominant (s) is in the third space. For 'S(t he places his Bass there, and I'aises a good distribution upon it. For 'SJ his Bass (<) would be in the fourth space, or, an Octave lower, on first line. For 'Sc his Bass (r) would be on the second Une. For 'Sii his Bass (/) would be on the third Une.] 14. In writing the chord 6-3, what note is it generally best to double or repeat in the Octave ? What note in the chord 6-4 ? And why 1 [6-3 means our b posi- tion, and 6-4 our c position. Genera] rules for doubling and omission are given above, par. 161, a, b, c. In the a and 6 po.sitions these rules apply without modi- fication. In c positions (6-4), the Fifth being in the Bass, it is commonly found more convenient to double it in the upper parts rather than the Root. In the INIinor chords the Third is freely doubled, espe- cially when they are in the b position. Therefore answer " in 6-3 double the Root (Sixtli from Bass) rather than the Fifth (Third from Bass), but not the Third (Octave to Bass) except in Minor chords. In 6-4 Dr. Stainer says, double the Fifth (Octave to Bass) rather than the Root (Fourth from Bass), but Dr. HuUah re- commends doubling the Root rather than Fifth. For reason, the Root is the prin- cipal tone, and can be freely doubled; the Fifth is so much like the Root that it may be doubled or omitted without notice.] 15. What is a Plagal Cadence ? And a Bass Cadence ? [Be prepared to write a Plagal cadence (see above, p. 296). A Bass cadence is a short expression for the different ways in which the Bass approaches different cadences. After the words "Bass cadence" some particular form of Bass is always given ; thus, the Bass cadences / s d or fs s d or m r d Si or d t, d s. The phrase is never used for any new hind of cadence, as the question seems to imply.] 16. Give examples of "Perfect" and of "Plagal" Cadence. [In Staff Nota- tion instruction books by a "Perfect Ca- dence" is generally meant the progression 354 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. uf S to D or 'S to D, and in the Minor of *f!M to i or 7 sejif to L. They do not make our distinctions above, p. 287 and 295. For Plag-al, see above, p. 296.] 17. Describe the foUowing passages. KEY C. :d' d :m KEY F. d :d :d — d f d 1 d rm, f| :£, d [The first meastire in each is the same, but the first has what wotild be called a "Perfect cadence," and the second has a "Plagal cadence."] 18. Give the common chords (or key- chords) of A, B2, G, F]{' ^th their in- versions. [By key-chords must be meant chords on the Tonic. It mLl be easy to write D chords at each of these pitches, altering the distribution where the dif- ferent pitch requires it.] 19. Fill in the Contralto and Tenor in the following exercise, using only the chords Da, Sa, and Fa. KEY C. /IS :t |d' :d' d' :t |d' : — 'Id :S| |d :d f :s |d [In these first exercises in composition the pupU will find the rules for the " putting-together of chords," par. 197, of use to Mm. In "filling in" he is saved the necessity of attending to Rules 1, 2, 3, 4, but he must notice carefully the rules 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, and 19. Let him first get a good distribution for the first chord, and then try how he can continue it with these Rules in mind. 20. Fill in the Contralto and Tenor in the following exercise, using the chords D, D6, S, Dc. KEY A. / in :d |t. :d d :t, |d d| :i»i| |s, :d s, is, jd : — 21. Fill in the Contralto and Tenor in the following exercises, using D, Si, DJ, F, S. KEY C. d :r' im' :d' 1 :t |d' : — d :t Id :i in s or 'S of the first flat key, the Root of which is s— standing on the pitch-note C. Therefore, place a note in the second space of tlie lowest stave. In the fifth chord the student needs no help. The last choi'd being interpreted is r ta s or I f r of the first flat key, the Root of which is 1 — standing on the i^itch-note G. Therefore, place a note on the bottom line of the staff. Exercises of this Idnd make it necessary for the Tonic Sol-faist to memorize the keys. See above, p. 52.] 42. Figure each of the following, and place below each its Root. [The Tonic Sol-faist instinctively trans- lates, and then he sees the Root of the chord and its position. Si and Dc will be easily figured by the student of par. 183c. He who has p. 22 fixed in his mind's eye will easily place the names of the Roots under the chords, as in Question 28. In the last case there is a " special reason " why the 5-3 should be wiitten in full. That is, to contradict the previous figuring on the same Bass. Fc in the fiist flat key, and Si in the fii'st sharp key win not give trouble to the student who has carefully followed our teachings under Question 41.] TWELFTH STEP. 43. Give examples of Syncopation, of Suspension, and of Retardation, and state the difference between them. [The word " syncopation " is not generally used in connection with the study of Harmony. For an example, see p. 35, above. Dr. Ouseley distinguishes between Suspension and Retardation. He says they are both the holding back, by a dissonance, of the proper tone of a chord ; that Susijcnsion is the ordinary case of the dissonance moving downward, and that Retardation is the more rare case of the dissonance resolving upward. See an example of both, par. 2394, above.] 44. Point out the eiTors in the follow- ing. KEY C. 1 :t ( r' :d' S:t' d' r' f :s f -.m \:s s - d' :r' i t :s i:d' t - f :s s '.m \:in s [In the first case there are both Octaves and Fifths. In the second case the Domi- nant Seventh is not properly resolved. In the third case ^S is intended for the middle chord, but the dissonance is neither prepared nor resolved, and the Third is heard along with the dissonance. Altering tlie Air to d' d' t and the Tenor to d' r' would set it right.] 45. Correct the following without al- tering the Bass, or changing the position of the first chord. KEY C. :d' — :r' m' ;— d [If the Air is altered to d' — t d\ it will resolve the dissonance properly, and pre- vent a doubled Third in the last chord.] 46. Figiire the Basses of the following chords. I [Fi and Fc are easily figured from pa> 183c. *D may be seen under par. 139«f. In the fourth case we have ''D followed by D. Tlie figure 9 is sufficient to indi- cate the first chord, and the figure 8 is placed under the second chord to show on what tone the 9 resolves ; otherwise it was not necessary to place anything under the second chord. In the fifth case we have 7, de vi s, which indicates the Dominant Seventh of the second sharp remove, key D. The student will, there- fore, place under it a 7, and under that a "sharp" to indicate the sharpened Third. In the last case d vt s ta gives us 'S in key P. Therefore, place underneath it a 7 with a "flat" before it.] 358 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 47. Write out in the treble clef the ascending' and descending Minor scale of E in its most modem form, and har- monize it in four parts, using the C clef for the Alto and Tenor parts. [The melodic form of the Minor Mode (see above, p. 47) is generally required in these questions. Turning to oiu- Rides, par. 197, Rule 3 would tell us to place La, b, or c under I and d both ascending and descending; sfj/a or b under t, m, and se ; and Ra or b under )■ and /. There then only remains the ba and the s. Ba may be harmonized, first, in Handel's ■way, with ba^, second with the chromatic chord fereT—ba being written as fe — (see above, Ex. 215, p. 345) ; and thu-d, with bar going to SEb, the Bass being continued into the second chord. The s may be harmonized as " 'Z,6, fuU-pulse passing-tone." If D were used in this place it would be strictly neither in the Minor Mode nor a good modulation to the Major.] 48. Add three parts above this figured Bass, using the C clef for the Tenor part, the G clef for the Treble and Alto parts. J «6 4 3 [Where the " sharp " stands alone it means a sharpened Third, which in all the above cases is se in sej/. The " sharp " before 6 points to the same note in "seJ/c] 49. Put three lower parts (in Alto, Tenor, and Bass clefs) to the following given subject, using any harmonies you like. KEY F. /If :s Im :d Ir :m Id :1, \ Ml, :1, :d Id :t, 11, [Proceed as in Question 29. Notice the two-fold fonr-pulse sequence at the be- ginning. See above, pp. 105 to 108. By using the plan |F6 : Si |D :D |R6 :M6 I Li : L it can be made into a hai-monic sequence.] 50. Show a specimen of the Dominant 9-7 in the key of C. [See under par. 2405-.] 51. Of how many inversions is the chord of the added Ninth susceptible ? Which is the most awkward to ti-eat, and why ? [By the " added Ninth " Dr. Ouseley understands ''T, par. 207J, and 2a9c. He also includes "^S, par. 240y. He treats them as one and the same chord, the Root being generally omitted. The chord is capable of four inver- sions— 'Ta (his first inversion of the Added Nmth), 'Tft (second inversion), 'Tc (third inversion), 'Trf (fourth inver- sion). Of these, the last is the more awkward to treat. See two resolutions of it at the end of par. 239c. The reason for the harsh effect is that in all the other inversions the Ninth is supported by its coupled dissonance, the Seventh below it, soimding as a Third or Tenth, but in this case the Seventh is far away above it. To this may be added that all discords are harshest when in the Bass, because they throw up strong dissonant partials.] 52. On the following Bass give a speci- men of the preparation and resolution of the Dominant chord of 9-7. KEY C. (:d |f, :f, |s, :s, |d || [See example under par. 2403".] 53. Prepare and resolve the following. d' s d' f [See example of *De under par. 239i.] 54. Give an example of the Prepara- tion and Resolution of the chord 9-7-4 in both Major and Jlinor. [This probably refers to the Ninth, Seventh, and Fourth on the Tonic. (See examples under par. 239^). The same dissonances on the Domi- nant are shown under par. 240A.] 55. Give an example of the Prepara- tion and Resolution of the chord 9-7-4 on the following Bass. 1^ 56. Add three parts to each of the following Basses. 98 4 3 [For the 9-4 upon s, see par. 241/. For the 7 and sharpened Third, see Question 46. For the 9 going to 8, and the 4 going to 3, see same question.] 57. Add three parts to the following Bass. 6 98766 6 98 5 3—35 EXAMmATION QUESTIONS. 359 [Under the foui-Ui cliord the 5 is unneces- sary except to show that the "sharpened" 6 rises from it. This is the commenoe- of a cadence transition. It is the chord L becoming R of the new key, and the figures indicate that in one of the parts tne tones m fe, or more properly 1 1, must be introduced. In the sixth pulse we have the fourth on the new Tonic passing as a Seventh through the Dominant, striking the Tonic as a forestroke, and then resolving on its Third. In the fifth measure the Ninth on d is prepared in the previous 'S6. At the beginning of the sixth measure we have " T6 with d as a part-pulse horizontal forestroke." In interpreting figuring of this kind always look to the second figures. If they indi- cate an ordinary chord it wiU easily be seen which figure in the first part of the chord is the intruder.] 58. Add three parts to the following m i^ =s^- [By the help of par. 183c, the third chord will be easily interpreted as ■*De. In the fifth chord there was no need to put any figm-ing except that the wi-iter wishes to show that the Fifth of Ra must move upwards to the Sixth from the Bass in Tb. See Question 57. The 6 and "flat" 5 means the h position of a chord of the Seventh, the 5 from the Bass being flat- tened, the chord ms tad is the Dominant Seventh of the first flat key, and indicates a " passing" transition. The figuring of the last chord but one should be in- terpreted according to the rule given under Question 57. This shows that the chord is 'S, and that the intruder is d as a part^pulse horizontal forestroke. It is the coupled dissonance '*S first resolving its d and afterwards its /. See above, par. 239/!.] Add three parts to the following 60. Add three parts to the following Bass. '^^^^ 6 9 8 4 5 6 125 2 2 3 6 7 5 9 [For 6-"flat" 5, see Question 58. For 4-2 and 5-2, see par. 183c. The 7 on t, followed by a "sharpened" 6 on the same Bass note, indicates SEb with ? as a horizontal forestroke. Compare the cor- responding Major in Question 57.] 61. Add three parts to the following IBggp^H^^^j^ 7 4 3 6 9 4 m^m hi KEY C. ID :F ID6 : G.t. |(S6 [^8 4 3 f.C. h. :Dc I |F :TAc|taF:F |"S :'S |*D :D 0 ff II [This was g-iven as a Tonic Sol-fa ques- tion, but with several egregious errors which were shown in the " Tonic Sol-fa Reporter" of October 1st, 1876. Since that time greater care has been taken in writing the Tonic Sol-fa exercises, but not sufficient care, as will be seen in the next question. We have given the "plan" in its corrected form.] 62. Add three parts to the following ^^il^i^il 6 6 3 3 liEiHEfe^liiiii^ 6 6 9 8 7 3 3 KEY C. (i.t. Id :t| |ni :r |''f :s |d, : D S6 Dt Sc F 'S ^D |^i,;t, Id ;m, If, :s jd : L S6 D D6 ''■FF'S D H 360 EXAMINATION QUKSHONS. [The Tonic Sol-fa question requires lower octave marks in meas. 3, to the brido-c- note m meas. 5, and the second pul^e of meas. 7 is iT, not "F. This ^vill show the kmd of errors which the Tonic Sol- faist may expect.] 63. Add three parts to the f oUo-ning '^^ 6 6 8 7 4 3 4 KEY C. G.t. f.C |D :F |DF6:7S |D :DS6PD.D:L | IF :DJ |Sc :D |P :S.'S|*D :D || Note.— Those who are prepai-inj? for lYammg CoUege E.xamiiiations, and not tor the Society of Arts, nor the UniFer- sity Local Examinations, need not study the remaming questions. C4. Coimect the two following chords by a Fundamental Discord, or a Discord by Suspension, or both. KEY C. :1 .T :fe :r Or, KEY G. ^or fimdamental discord, see par 229e For suspension, see par. 2036. The Tonic Sol-faist would inteiTjret these two chords as F to S in key G, the Roots of which are stepwise and disconnected. They can be connected, first, by the r of Treble into /, makmg 'S, which requires resolution into D ; second, by <, into d t. ■ third, bv combming both.] ' 65. Supply the two inner parts to the tollowing, and give the Roots of each chord. 6 6 6 5 — 5 4q 4 4 3 3 3 [A badly written question. It looks as though the Examiner had first written without the last "flat" in the signature (D), but putting that "flat" in where it was wanted, on the Seventh of the second rhord, and on the note D in the fourth chord, but afterwards altered his mind and put the "flat" in the signature, for- getting to take out the then unnecessary flats" m the second and third measures, and thus "flattening" the last note but ?^^: .^® ^^^^^ °f *l^e Bass shows us that this note was intended to represent the leadmg-note of the new kev The natural " to the figure 4 in the thii-d measure we do not understand. The first interval of the Bass is an awkward one. Ihe best mterpretation of the whole seems to be — KEY Aft. Eft.t. :D I ■'SE:L | 'Tc iLc \L :LR5)4s -g |d ._ p 66. Add a Bass to the followins KEY A. ^' (| {|i :1 |s :f jm :m jm ;_ ir [Proceed as in Questions 47 and 48.] 71. Copy these figured Bass notes, and write (on a stave above) the chords indi- cated, adding, in the case of discords their resolution. Name each chord. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 361 [The Tonic Sol-faist finding fe with 6-5 underj it i. knows, from par. ISSc, that the first inversion of a chord with a Seventh is implied. As /« represents < in the first sharp key Q- he writes on the staff above 'Si in key 0- ; he resolves the discord, and he writes underneath "first inversion of Dominant Seventh in key G." In the second chord he sees I in the Bass with 6-4-3 under it, and knows from par. lS3c that a second inversion of a chord with a Seventh is implied. But the 6 has a stroke drawn throufih it obliquely (or a % placed before it). The 6 from the Bass is, therefore, not s but se, and that gives him the Dominant Seventh of the third sharp remove, key A. The Bass note is, therefore, r in key A; the student ■writes above it 'Sc in that key, with its resolution, and writes underneath " se- cond inversion of Dominant Seventh in key A." The same chord may be inter- preted as a Dominant Seventh in the Minor, or Tsej/c in key C, called A Minor. In the third chord the student sees ;■ with a sharp under it. That shai'p means a sharpened Third, and )■ fe I is the same thing as s t r of the first sharp key G, or d m s oi key D. He, therefore, wi-ites a common chord over the r, and says be- neath it " a Major common chord on D." In the fourth chord the student finds m with a 6 vmder it, and he knows from par. 183c that this means the b position of a chord. The m being in the Bass makes it the chord D of key C, which he writes above, adding below " Major common chord on C." In the fifth chord he sees ta with 4-2 under it, which he knows to be the d position of a chord of the Se- venth. Ta itself represents / of the first flat key F. He, therefore, writes above the chord 'ScZ in key F with its resolution, and below he says "third inversion of Dominant Seventh in key F." In the sixth chord he has d with 6-4, which tolls him at once to write the chord Fc in key C, or Dc in key F, and to write under- neath "second inversion of a Major com- mon chord on F." In the seventh chord he finds l\, and underneath it a 7 with the sign for a sViarp Third. This he reads up 2, de m s, which gives him 'Sa in the second sharp key D, or 7se3{a in the first flat key F (or D Minor). Perhaps it will be better for him to write above " 'S in key D," and below "Dominant Seventh of key D." In the last chord he finds s with 6-5-3 under it, and this points to the 6 position of a chord with a Seventh. But each of the figures has a & before it. He, therefore, reads upwards s ta ra ma. The Modulator, p. 50, shows him that this is 'S4 in the foui-th flat key A}l. Or remember- ing the signatures, ho will notice that the most distant flat in this figuring is P^ (55) and that belongs to key A&. He, therefore, writes it in that key above, and writes below " First inversion of Domi- nant Seventh in key A&."] THIRTEEN'TH STEP. 72. Give examples of Chromatic Dis- cords. [See examples, p. 345, 350. 73. Give the Root of this chord, and make in it three enharmonic changes, giving the Root in each j 1 case. [The supposed Root of this chord is M, a Major Third below I ^® se. See par. 239c. Supposing the chord, keeping the same pitch for its Bass, to be altered to its b position, that would give us (see p. 50) ''SEb in key A, or " F sharp Minor." Supposing it altered to its c position, that would give us ''SEc in key F shai-p, "D sharp Minor," or in key G flat, "E flat Minor." Supposing it altered to its d position, that would give us ''SEd in key E flat, " C Minor." These alter- ations would be called " Enharmonic changes," which would be worked out thus — fi igU^^l Roots Gj( AJ G 74. Add Alto and Tenor parts to the following subject, and give the Root of each chord. 1. i= ^=3= ^^^g^ii^ 17 5 3 7 6 7 5 4 5 tI3 J3 M=^: r^- =S=:it m^^^^^^=\ 55 6 6 Jf3 4 [In this Minor Mode exercise, the second and third chords {^DE E) offer a case of "passing" transition to the first flat key. The sixth and seventh chords [7s.oM F) are like a stepwise cadence. The fom'th and fifth chords [7ieRE Lc) show a chro- matic resolution, see above, par. 133. The eighth and ninth chords (dep hj) may be interpreted as passing transition to the first flat key, Ssej/g going to Lb. Dr. Maofan-en would call Bsejf the 362 KXAMINA.TION ftUESTIOXS. " Dorainaut ^Minoi Thirteenth," and its Root, here disguised as I, would be G. The Root of the second chord, which is '5£ disgTiised, would be a Major Third below the apparent Root, that is G. The Root of the fourti chord, which, though not transitional, has its model in ''SE, would also be regarded as having a sup- posed Root, a Major Third below the apparent one, that is, on A. ] , 75. Add Alto and Tenor parts to the following, and name the Root of each chord. 86 5 6 6 Jt6 6 4 4 54 4 JJ4 3 2 es 5 — 5 4 3 [In this Major Mode exercise, there is a modulation to the relative Minor in the second and third chords (7 sej/c •>/.) then a transitional modulation to the tirst flat Minor in the fourth to the Seventh chords (7 sejM Lb se j/c L). On the eighth and ninth chords there is a transitional modulation to the first shai-p Major. The chords are laTc, Di in key G.] 76. What is Counterpoint ? [Counter- point is the art of adding accompan>-ing " parts " to a given melody. It was used in the 14th, loth, and 16th centuries, from the time of the Black Prince to that of Queen Elizabeth, and before harmony proper, with its relations of chords and kevs, was understood. The practice of writing counterpoint exercises sttU survives because it is found to train the young composer in studying the re- lative motion of parts, which is not done by the mere study of chords and discords. Unfortunately, however, some influential teachers retain some of the ancient rules of coimterpoint, such as forbiddance of c positions, and of all discords except such as are horizontally prepared, and passing-tones, including the Dominant Seventh when unprepared, &c.— which have long been thro-n-n aside in practical music, which is something like compel- ling our students to wear the dresses which were fashionable three hundred years ago. This "strict" counterpoint is still required in most public examina- tions. Students wishing to prepare for them should master the little "Text-book of Counterpoint," by Mr. Geo. Oakey, and go through a postal course of exer- cises under the College. A course of exercises on " free " counterpoint and figuration, in which everything allowed in modem harmony should be allowed in counterpoint, would be far more useful. This we hope to see.] 77. State the difference between the study of Counterpoint and the study of Harmony I [Counterpoint treats of the art of makinsr and combining melodies ; Harmony of the art of combining simul- taneous sounds, and of the succession ol such combinations.] 78. Point out the violation of rule in the following, and correct it by altering one or both of the notes of the second combination. H^ =* II ^^^^•Mf :ni II [As these questions on counterpoint are foimded on the Society of Arts' pagers, for which Mr. HuUah is the examiner, it is better to follow his book on " Counter- point," especially because in some re- spects it differs from others. In this example the parts represent unconnected chords, and it is forbidden to pass by stepwise progression from one combina- tion having the Fourth of the scale to another combination b aving the Seventh of the scale. The / and < occurring in different parts produce what was termed by the ancient conti-apuntists the " false relation of the tritone," which is not so apparent to the ear when one of the parts moves by skip and not by step. Thus m shoiUdbe changed tor.] 79. Give one or two examples of for- bidden progression by similar motion, in two-part counterpoint. [a 1 :t III :— Is :— IM :— r In a the same error is foimd that is noted in Question 78. In 6 and c the Fifth and Octave in the second combination are ap- proached in similar motion. In d there are consecutive Fifths on the accented parts of the measui-e, and in e there are consecutive Octaves on the accented parts of the measure.] 80 What objection is there to, or in- convenience arising from, the following progression KEY C. 8XA.MINATI0N QUESTIONS. 363 [The chords have no note in common (no Uond ; see p. 279), and the progression generally induces an awkward morement in the parts.] 81. Which of the following Progres- sions is faulty, and why 1 KEY C. abed d' :r'|l (I 8' :f' I Ki :s e s' :£' d :1 :f'|l^|l :t \\(\s':V :1 ||(|f :s l|c|d':f ff s' :r' h r':ni' d :s \\/\s :d' [a is faulty because the Fifth is ap- proached in similar motion ; c because the Fourth of the scale is in one combination and the Seventh of the scale in the other, and the progi-ession is (stepwise) by con- junct degrees; d because the Octave is approached in similar motion ; g because of the consecutive Fifths.] 82. Add a part or any number of parts, in any kind of counterpoint, to the fol- lowing. Transpose it, if necessary, into any key. KEY C. Bass. Id :r |1, :t, |d :f |n :s | |r :ni |t, :d |f :r |d :- || ["Note against note," in two parts. Tenor & Bass. d' :t !l d :r t :d' d' :r' d' :1 1, :t, d ;f r' :m' r' :t t, :d f :r d' :- d : — " Two notes against one," in three parts. S.C.B. d'.Slt.l / d'.t:1.8 f.Ki:r.s ii ! t. :d s.l-.t.d' tn '.s , x'.f'-.m'.r' d'.t:d'.d r.d:r.f m : — r :1, d :s, 1, :t, d :- f :d 1 :ni f :r d :- KEY C. S.C.B. "With syncopation. ,ni':-.r' -.d' s :f d :r 1, -.1 / ~.V:-.m< -.d':-.s -.f: r :1, d :s, 1. : i r :d 1 :tn f : -.s'l -.i>i':-.s' d t, :m ] d I m :s -.r|. :-, t. 'd :-! r d .— ' 365 LIST OF MUSICAL TERMS. Note. — A table of vowel sounds is given at the bottom of every page. Tie accent is borne by the syllable preceding the dash '. Abbandono, con {Mn d-bdn-do'-no), with self-abandonment. Accelerando [at - tshel -e-rdn' -do), more and more quickly. Accelerato (dt-tshel-e-rd' -to), in- creased in rapidity. Acciaccatura [dt-chiak-dtoo'-rd), a short appoggiatirra. -Accolade {ako-ld'-de), the brace connecting the staves. Adagio {d-dd'-jio), very slow and expressive. Adagio Aasai or Molto {d-dd'-jio ds-sd-e, or mol' -to), extremely slow and expressive. j^dagio Cantabile e Sostenuto [d- da! -jib han-td' -bi-le e sos-ten-oo' - to), slow, sustained, in a singing manner. Adagissimo {d-dd-jis'-imo), slower than udagio. Ad libitum [ad lib'-it-um), Latin, at will or discretion. A-ffettuoso {df-fet-oo-b'-zb), with ten- derness and pathos. Afflizione con {df-fe-tsib'-na), in a manner expressive of grief, iigilita, con {d-jtl'-i-td), with lightness and agility. Agitato {dj-i-td'-tb), with agitation. A\, Alia {dl dlld), to the ; in the style of. As Al Fine, to the end; Alia Marcia, in the style of a march. Alia Breve {dl-ld breve), a quick species of common time used in church music. Alia Capella (dl-ld kdpel'-ld), in the church style. Alia Stretta {dl-ld stre('-ta), in- creasing the time. AUargando {dl-largan'do), with free, broad style. Allegretto {dl-le-gret'-tb), cheerful. Not so quick as Allegro. Allegro {dl-le'-grb), quick, lively. Sometimes modified by the ad- dition of other words, as follows : Allegro Assai {ds-sd-e), very quick. Allegro con moio.{kbn mo'-tb), with a quick, lively movement. Allegro con Spirito {spe'-ri-tb), quick. "With spirit. Allegro di Molto {di mbl'-to), ex- ceedingly quick. Allegro veloce {ve-lb'-tshe), quick, to absolute rapidity. Allegro vivace {ve-vd'-tshe), with vivacity. AUegrissimo {al-legrts'-semb), su- perlative of Allegro. Amabile [d-md'-be-le), amiably. Amoroso {dm-or-b'-zb), lovingly, tenderly. Andante {dn-ddn'-te), "going" easily and rather slewly. Key to Vowel Sounds. — a, ale ; a, add ; a, arm ; e, eve ; e, end ; i, ice; 1, ill ; 6, old; 6, odd ; o, dove ; oo, moon ; u, lute; u but. 366 LIST OF MUSICAL TERMS. Andante AfiFettuoso {af-fet-oo-o'-zo), slow, with much pathos. Andante Cantabile {kan-ta'-bll-e), slow, and in a singing style. Andante con Uoto, slow and with emotion. Andante grazioso (jrat-ze-o'-zo), slow and gracefully. Andante Maestoso (md-es-to'-zo), slow and with majesty. Andante non troppo, slow, but not in excess. Andantino {an-dan-te'-no), a little slower than Andante — moving gently. Animato {an-%-ma''to), with anima- tion. Anima con [kon Sn'-i-ma), with soul, with fervour. A piacere (a pe-d-tshe'-re), at pleasure ; faster or slower. Appassionato [dp-pds-se-o-nd' -to), with fervid, impassioned emotion. Appoggiatura {ap-pod-jid-tu' -rd\, a forestroke. Ardito {dr-de'-to), with ardour. Arco [dr'-ko), with the bow. Used to contradict Pizzicato. Arioso [dr-t-o'-so), In a melodious, singing manner. Assai {dssd-e), very, more; a.a Adagio assai, very slow. Attacca subito [dt-tak' -kd soo'beeto), attack the new movement im- mediately. A tempo [d tem'-pS), after a change in speed, to return to the original rate of movement. A tempo giusto [joos'-to), in strict and equal time. A tempo ordinario {or-dm-d'-rio), in an ordinary rate of time. Audace {a-oo-dd'-tshe), bold, fear- less, impudent. Basso Prime {basso pre' mo), First Bass. Basso Secnndo {sd-koon'-do), Second Bass. Bene Placito {be/ie pld-tshe'-to), at will. Ben Marcato [ben mdr-kd'-to), in a clear, distinct, strongly marked manner. Ben pronunziato { pro-noon - tse • a' -to), pronounced clearly. Bis, Latin ; twice. A passage in- dicated by a stroke to be per- formed twice. Bravura {brdv-oo'-rd), with vigour, with boldness. Brioso {bre-o'-zo), with spirit. Brillante (brtl-lan'-te), in a showy, sparkling style. Bnrlesco (boor-le'-sko), with comic humour. Cadence, English. A close in me- lody or harmony. Also an orna- mental passage at the end of a piece of music. Cadenza {kdden'-zd), Italian. An ornamental series of notes at the close of a piece of music. Calando [kdldn'-dS), becoming softer and slower by degrees. Calore [kdl-d'-re), heat, warmth. Cantabile {kan-td'-bV-e), in a smooth, melodious, graceful, sing- ing style. Canticle, English. Devotional song. Canto, the highest part in a piece of vocal music. Cantor, Latin. Cantore, Italian. [kan-to'-re), A singer. Cantoris {k an -tor' -Is), Latia. A term used in cathedral music, to distinguish the singers on the left side, where the Cantor or Pre- centor sits. Key to Vowel Sounds. — a, ale ; a, add ; a, arm ; e, eve ; e, end ; \, iet , !, ill; 6, old; 6, odd; 6, dove; oo, moon ; fi, lute; u, but. USX OV MUSICAL TERMS. 367 C&Tizonet {/{anziiurt' ), English. Can- zonetto, Italian. A short song. Capriccio (ka-pnt'-shto), in a fan- ciful style. Celerita {cheler'-ild), with celerity, quick. Cavatina (kavafe'-tia), an air of one movement only, sometimes pre- ceded by recitative, of a dramatic character, and generally employed in Opera. Chorus, Latin. Coro (A;o>'-o), Ita- lian. A band or company of singers. Comodo {kom-mo'-do), with com- posure, quietly. Con (kon), with. Con brio {kon bree'-o), with life, vigour, brilliancy. Con fuoco {foo-o'-ko), with fire. Con moto (kon mo to), with motion, or a spiiited movement. Con Spirit© [kon spe-rt-td), with quickness and spirit. Coi, Col, Coir, Colla, CoUo, with the. Corale (kSr-a'-le), the plain chant. Crescendo [kres-shen'-do), becoming louder. Sometimes expressed thus -<:. Da Capo, or D.C. {da, kd'-po), from the beginning. Da, from. Dal, from the. Decani {de-kd'-ne), Latin. A term used in cathedi-al music, to dis- tinguish those singers who are placed on the right side of the building (entering the choir from the nave), where the Dean sits. Decrescendo {de-kre-shen'-do), gra- dually decreasing in power of tone. Deir, Delia, Dello {ddll, dalld, dal-lo), of the. Detache {ddtd'-sJid), French. Make each syllable short and accent equally. French term for staccato. Deliberate (dd-le-be-rd'-lo), adj., Deliberamente, adv., deliber- ately. Demi, English. A half. Diminuendo {de- me- noo-en -do), diminishing the force. Di Molto {de mol'-tS), much or very. Dolce {dol'-ishe), in soft and sweet style. Dolorosa {dol-or-d'-zd), Dolente {dolen'-td), with an expression of pain — dolorousl y . Duet, EngUsh. Duetto, Italian. A composition for two performers. E {a), Ed {dd), and. Eco, Ecco {eko), Italian. Echo, English. A repetition or imita- tion of a previous passage, with some modification of tone. Eguale {d-givd' -le), equally, even, alike. Elegante {el-e-gdn'-te), with ele- gance. Energico (ener'-Jiko), con energia {kon ener'-je-d), energicamente {ener-Jtkamen' -tS) , with energy. Enharmonic, English. Proceeding by quarter tones. Espressivo {es-pres-e'-vo), or con espressione, with expression. Etude {d-tude), study. Extempore {eks-teni' -por-e), Latin. unpremeditated. Facilita {fd-tsMl'-i-td), ma.de easier. Facilmente {fdchilmdn'-te), easily, with facility. Fermato {fer-md'-tb), with firm- ness and decision. Feroce {fe-rb'-che), fiercely. Fervente {fer-ven'-te), with warmth. Fine {fe'ne), the end. Key to Vowel Sounds. — a, ale ; a, add ; a, arm ; e, eve ; e, end ; i, ice / I, ill ; 6, old; 6, odd ; o, dove ; oo. moon; u, lute ; ii, but. 368 LIST OF MUSICAL TEKM8. Forte (for'ic), loud. Fortissimo {for-tes'-sX-mo), very loud. Forza [fort-zd), force, vehemence. Forzando {fdrt-zan'-dd), forzato, ■with peculiar emphasis or force. Fngato {foo-ga'-to), in the fugue style. Furioso [foo-rio'-zo), with rage, furiously. Gajamenta {gd-t/d-men'-ta), Gai, Gaio, Gajo, with gaity. Giocoso [jid-ko'-zo), humorously, ■with sportiveness. Giustamente (Joo-stdmen'-te), justly, ■with precision. Guisto {Joo'-sto), in just and exact time. Glissando {gU-za)i'-do), in a gliding manner. Grande {gran' -de), great. Grandioso {grSn-dto'zo), in grand and elevated style. Gravamente {grd-ve-men'-te), ■with gravity, dignified, and solemn. Grave (grd'-re), a very slo^w and solemn movement. Grazia, con {koii grdt'ze-a), grazio- samente, grazioso, in a flowing, graceful style. Gusto (goo-sto), gustoso (^oosto'-zo), con gusto, with taste, elegantly. II (el), the ; as il violino, the violin. Impetuoso [eem-pe-too-o' -zo), adj., impetuosamente (eem-pd-too-o- zd-men'te), adv., ■with impetuo- sity. Impromptu {impromp'-teii), Latin. An extemporaneous production. Impro'wisamente {eem- pro-ve-zd- men'-le), extemporaneously. Innocentemente {een-no-tshen-tX - men'-te), innocente, con inno- cenza, in artless, simple style. Intruda (eentrd'-da), Introduction. La, the ; as la voce {la vo'-tshe), the voice. Lagrimoso {Id-gre-mo'-zo), in a mournful, dolorous style. Lamentabile {Id-men-id' -be-le), la- mentoso, plaintively, mournfully. Languente {lan-giien'-le), lan- guido, with languor. Largamente {Idrgdmen'-te), very slowly. Larghetto {Idr-get-to), a slow and measured time ; but less slow than Largo. Larghissimo {Idr-ghes'-e-mo), ex- tremely slow. Largo {Idr'-go), a very slow and solemn degree of movement. Le {Id), the ; as le voci {Id vo'-tsha), fern, pi., the voices. Legatissimo {le-gd-tees' -se-mo), very smoothly connected. Legato {le-gd'-to), bound or tied, in a smooth, gliding manner. Leggiero (led-Je-e'-ro), with light- ness. Leggierissimo {led-Je7--ees' -se-mo), vrith the utmost lightness and facility. Lentando {len-tdn'-do), ■with in- creased slowness. Lento {Idn-to), in slow time. L'istesso tempo {leestes'-sd tempo), in the same time as previous movement. Ma {md), but; as allegro ma nou troppo, quick, but not too much so Maesta, con {md-es-td), maestoso {md-es-to'-zo), •with majesty and grandeur. Uarcato {mdr-kd'-to), in a marked and emphatic style. Meno {me'-no), less ; ao meno forte, less loud. iey to Vowel Sounds. — a, ale; [a, add; a, arm; e, eve; e, end; l^ iet; I, ill; 6, old; 6, odd; 6, dove; oo, moon; u, lute; u, but. LIST OF MUSICAL TERMS. 369 Blesto [mes'-io), mestoso [mes-to'- zo), mounifully, sadly, patheti- cally. Mezza voce [med-dzd vo'-tshe), in a gentle, flute-like voice. Mezzo [mid-dzo), half ; as mezzo- piano, rather soft ; mezzo-forte, rather loud. Moderate [mo-der-d'-to), adj., moderatamente, con modera. zione {mo-der-dt'-se-one), with a moderate degree of quickness. Moderatissimo [mo-der-d-te-simd) , in very moderate time. Molto {mol'-to), very, extremely ; as motto allegro, very quick. Molta voce, con {mol'-td vo'-tshe), with full voice. Morendo [mor-en'-do), gradually subsiding, dying away. Mosso [mos'-so], moved, movement. Meno mosso, slower, less motion. Moto or con moto (mo'-to), with agitation. Nobile [no'-bi-le), nobilmente {no'-bll-men'-te), with nobleness, grandeur. Non, an adverb of negation, gener- ally associated with troppo, as : — Non troppo allegro, non troppo presto, not too quick. Non molto, not very much ; as non molto allegro, not very quick. Non tanto {iion tdntb), not too much ; as allegro non tanto, not too quick. Nuovo, di, newly, again. 0, or ; as fiauto o violino, flute or violin. Obbligato {ob-ble-gd'-td), a part to be performed by some particular instrimient in conjunction with the principal part, and indispen- sable to the harmony and proper effect. Obbligati {ob-blc-gd'-te), pi., two or more indispen.sable parts to be perfomied by ditferent instru- ments in conjunction with the principal part. Ordinario {ordindr'-Xo), usual ; as a tempo ordinario, in the usual time. Passionatamente [pas-siondtamen' - te), passionato [pds-sio-nd-to), in an impassioned manner. Pianissimo {pe-d-nes -sXmd), ex- tremely soft. Piano {pe-d'-no), soft. The oppo- site of forte. Piano piano, or piii piano {pyeu j]e-d'-no), more soft, or very soft. Piu {pyeu, almost like the EngHsh pew), an adverb of augmentation, as piu forte, louder ; piii lento, slower. Piacere, al {dl ptjd-tsha'-re), at pleasure in regard to time. Piu mosso {p'jeii mos'-so), with more motion. Piu tosto {tosto), or piuttosto, rather; meaning "in preference," as allegretto o piuttosto allegro, rather quicklj', or in preference, quickly. Pizzicato {pet-se-kd'-to), pinched. AppUed to a way of snapping the strings of the violin, &c., Avith the fingers. Placido {plii'-tshldo), calm, quiet. Plus [ploos), more. Plus anima, with greater animation. Poco {po-Jco), a little. Poco meno [po-Jco ma'-no) some' what less. Poco piii mosso, a little faster. Poco a Poco, by degrees, gradually. Poggiato {pod-jyd'-to), dwelt on, struck impressively. Key to Vowel Sounds. — a, ale ; a, add; a, arm ; e, eve ; e, i, ill: 6. old; o, odd; 6, dove ; oo, moon; \x, lute; u, but. 2A 370 LIST OF MUSICAL TERMS. Poi, {po-e), then; adagio, poi allegro, slow, then quick. Pomposo {pdm-po'-zo), in a grand and pompous manner. Portamento [por-td-imn' -to), sus- taining the voice, gliding from note to note. Precipitamente ( pra-tsM - pe-td - men'-te), precipitato {pra-tslie- pe-td'to), con precipitazione [kou prd-tshe-pe-id-tsio'-nd), precipi- toso [prd-tske-pe-to'-zo), in a hunied manner. Prestamente ( pres - td - men -te), hastily, rapidly. Prestezza [pres-tet'-zd), with haste and vivacity. Prestissimo (pres-ies'-simo), ex- ceedingly quick, quicker than presto. Presto {pres' -to), very quickly. Primo {pre'-mo), first; as primo tempo, return to the original time. Quasi {qud'-se), in the manner or style of ; as if ; almost ; as quasi allegretto, like an allegretto. Quieto {kive-e'-td), with calmness and repose. Eallentando {rdl-lhi-tdn'-do), more and more slowly, generally with decrease of force. Bapidamente [rd-pe-dd-men'- te), con rapidita {/con rd-pe'-di-td), rapido {rd-pi-do), rapidly, with rapidity. Rattenen'do, restraining or holding back the time. Ravvivando {ravivdn'-do), reviving, re-animating, accelerating ; as ravvivando il tempo, animating or quickening the time. Recitando, {retsh-t-tdn-do), decla- matory, in the style of recitation. Recitativo {retsh-1-td-te'-vo), a species of musical recitation. Religioso, in a solemn style. Rinforzando {rln-forts-dn' -do), rin- rorzato {rhi-fdrts-d'-to), rinforzo {rln-fort'-so), with additional tone and emphasis. Risolutamente {re-zo-loo-td- men'- te), risoluto {re-zo-loo'-to), risolU' zione, con {kon re-zo-loo-tsio' -no), in a bold, decided style. Risolutissimo {re -zo-loo-te-simo), with extreme resolution. Ritardando {re-tdr-ddn'-do), ritar- dato {re-tdr-dd'-to), a gradual delaying of the pace, with cor- responding diminution in point of tone. Ritenendo {re-ten-en' -do), holding back in the time — slackening. Ritenuto {re-te-noo'-to), slackening the time. The effect differs from Ritardando, by being done at once, while the other is effected by degrees. Scherzando {skert-zdn'-do), Bcher- zante {skert-zdn'te), scherzo f skert' -zo), scherzevolmente [skert-ze-vol -men'-te), scherzo- samente {skert-zo-sd' -men' -te), scherzoso {skert-zo'-so), in alight, playful, and sportive manner. Segno {sd-nyo), a sign; as dal segno, repeat from the sign. Segue {seg'we), seguito (seg'wtto), now follows ; or, as follows. As segue il coro, the chorus following. Sometimes means in similar or like manner, to show that a pas- sage is to be performed like that which precedes it. Semplice {sem-ple'-che), semplice- mente {sem-ple -che-men'- te), semplicita, con {kon scmple' -chi- td), with simplicity, artlessly. Sempre {sempre), always; as sempre staccato, always staccato, or de- tached. Key to Voicel Sounds. — a, ale; a, add; a, arm; e, eve; e, etid ; i, ice; I, ill; 6, old; o, odd; o, dove; oo, moon; u, lute; n, but. ■LIST OF MPSICAL TFRMS. 371 Serioso (setnd'zo), in a grave and serious style. Senza (sen'-tsd), without. Siciliana (se-c/ie-nd'-na), a move- ment of slow, soothing, pastoral character, in six-pulse time, re- sembling a dance peculiar to the people of Sicily. Sforzando {sfor-tsan'-dS), sforzato (sfor-tsd'-to), imply that a par- ticular note is to be performed with emphasis and force. Sincopato {siu-ko-pd'-to), to connect an unaccented note ^vith the accented one which follows. Slentando {slen-tHn'-do), a gradual diminution in the time or speed of the movement. Smorzando [smor-tsdn'do), smorzato, diminishing the sound, dying away by degrees. Soave (so-d-ve), in soft, sweet, delicate style. Soavemente [so-dv-e-men'-te), with great sweetness. Soleunemeiite {solennenien'-te), so- lemnly Solennita, con. {kon solen'-itd), with solemnity. Soli [so-le), pi., implies that two or more principal parts play or sing together, i.e., one voice or one instrument of each part only. Solo, sing., a passage for a single voice or instrument, with or without accompaniments. Sonoramente [sonordmen'te), so- norita, con {kon sonor' -itd), sonorously ; with a full vibrating kind of tone. Sostenuto {sostenoo'-to), sostenendo, with tones sustained to their full length. Sotto {sotto), under ; as sotte voce, in a soft, subdued manner, in an undertone. Spirito, con {konspe'-ri-td), spirito- samente [spe-ri-to-za-meii' -te), spiritoso (spe-rt-to'-zo), with spirit, animation. Staccatissimo (stdk-kd-tes'-stmo), very detached. Staccato {stdk-kd'-to), distinct, short, detached. The tones sepa- rated from each other by short rests. Suave (soodvd), suavemente {sood- vamen'-te) suavita, con [kon soodvee'-td), the usual form is soave, with sweetness and delicacy of expression. Stringendo {strinjdn -do), pressing onwards, accelerating the time. Subitamente, subito {soobeetdmen' - te, soobeto), quickly ; as volti subito, turn over quickly. Tace {Idche), silent. Tacia, si (se tdch'-id), let it be silent. Tanto {tdti'-to), so much ; as non tan to, not so much. Tardo (tdr'-do), slowly, in a dragging manner. Tasto solo {tasto sold), indicates that certain bass notes are not to be accompanied by chords. Tempo, A, or In (a or in tempo), in time. An expression used after some change in the time, to in- dicate a return to the original degree of movement. Tempo a piacere [tempo d pydchd'- re), the time at pleasure. Tempo commodo {tempo kommo'-do), at a convenient and moderate speed. Tempo giusto {tempo joos-to), in exact or strict time. Key to Vowel Sounds. — a, ale ; a, add ; a, arm; e, eve; e, end; I, iee ; I, ill ; 0, old ; o, odd ; o, dove ; oo, moon ; ii, lute ; u, but. 372 LIST OF MUSICAL TERMS. Tempo ordinario {tempo ordindr'-e-o), at an ordinary and moderate rate. Tempo prime {tempo pree'-mo), re- turn to the original time. Tenuto {tenoo'-td), held on, the tones sustained for theii- full time. Timoroso (^>«»ro'-«o), with timidity, awe. Teste {tos'-to), swift, soon. Tranquille {trdnkooe'-lo), tran- qaillamente { trdnkooel-lamen - B), tranquillita, con {kon tran- kooe'-llta), with tranquillity. Tremelando {tremdlSn'-dS), tremolo (trem'-olo), a tremulous effect produced by rapid reiteration of a sound. Troppo {trop'po), too much ; gene- rally preceded by the negative non ; as adagio non troppo, not too slow. Tntti {too'te), the entrance of all the instruments or voices after a solo. Tutta forza, cen {kon too'-tdfoitsd), with the utmost vehemence ; as loud as possible. Un, uno, una, {oon, oono, ootid), a; as un poco, a little. TJn peco ritenuto {oon poko re- tenoo'-td), gradually slower. Va (fd), goes on ; as va crescendo, continues to increase in loudness. Veloce, or con velecita, {velo'-cke, kon velo'-chitd), in a rapid time. Sometimes si^iifies as rapid as possible. Velecissimo {valotsM-semo), with extreme rapidity. Vigoroso {vig-o-ro'-so), vigoresa- mente {vig-d-rd-sa-nwn-'ie),\)6\.d\j, vigorously. Vivace {ve-vd'-tshe), vivacemente {ve-vd-tshe-men'-te), quick and lively. Vivamente, vivacita, con {vevd- men'-te, kon ve-vd'-tshttd), with briskness and animation. Vivacissimo {ve-vat-shes' -sirm), with extreme vivacity. Voce {vo'-tshe), the voice. Volti subito {volte soo'-bito), turn over quickly. Volante {volan'-te), in a light and rapid manner. Key to Votvel Sounds. — a, »fe; a, add; a, arm; e, eve; e, end; i, iee{ I, ill; 6, old; 5, odd; 6, dwe; oo, moon ; u, lute ; u, but. INDEX. Pab. Page. 26, 1016 Accent 25, 128 37 Accent, Irregular 35 26 „ Medium 25 26 „ Strong 25 37 ,, Syncopated 35 26 „ Weak 25 36 ,, Within a Pulse 33 36i, l'23j Acciacatura 35, 243 l&i, 60c Accidentals 14,64 91 Accompaniment, Analysis of ... 119 135 „ ,, Expression of 254 116g Accompaniment of Canon 218 89 Accompaniment, Relations of ... 114 896 „ „ Styles of 115 154 Adaptation of Hymns & Tunes 269 2026 Added Sixth 300 2076 Added Ninth 303 90 Additions and Insertions 117 Admission Questions, T. Sol-fa 67 „ „ Staff No. 71 40. Supertonic... 93, 94 73/, 208 „ Surprise ... 93,303 736, 178 „ Tonic 92, 287 73e „ Transitional 93 73ft, 187 „ Weak Pulse 94, 292 98 Cadence-tone or Cadence-phrase 125 93'/, 116 Canon, The 122, 217 I16h Canon, Circular 218 116i ,, Closed and Open 217 116/ „ Crab 218 116c „ Finite and Perpetual ... 217 116/ „ Strict and Tonal 218 120 Cantata 233 107 tZ Cantoris and Decani 148 lOSj Canzonet 155 119(i Capriccio 233 108c Carol 155 nek Catch 220 108A Cavatina 155 112A Chaconne or Passacaglio 179 228c Changing-note 316 98 Chant Form, The 125 ISfi, 142c Cheerful Expression ... 265, 257 96 Chord, Common 6 73c Chord Crowning 92 9, 42^/ Chord, Major 6,42 211 Cliord on Mediant 305 208c „ on Sixth of key 304 211c „ on Third of key 306 219 „ The Transmutation 309 726 Chords 92 163 „ Bonding of 279 1796 „ Broken 287 161 „ Constitution of 278 184 „ Crowning of 290 204 „ Dimini.shed 302 159 „ Distribution of 277 157 „ Major Common 276 165 „ Mental Effect of 280 198 „ Minor Common 299 158 „ Naming of 277 180 „ Position of 288 197 „ The putting together of 297 208 Chord LAH, The Substitutional 303 201 ' Chord RAH, The Substitutional 299 205 Chord TE, The Diminished 302 107e' Chorus 148 13d Chroma 9 606, 246c Chromatic, The word 64, 344 Par. Paos. 247 Chromatic Resolution 344 247d Do., ferer, VleieT, 7 teRE 345 247c Do., TA, laRA, taD, dei, 7dei, taZJj?, rataM, 7DE 346 247/ Do., laT, laR, 71aE, lap, mal.A 348 247^ leF, feLA, femaLA, 4feLA, 4re.f, 6 4RA, 6EA, 61aRA, iaeTA 7seZ) 349 246 Chromatic Tones 344 73 Classification of Cadences 92 147 „ of Emotions 263 93 „ of Musical Forms 122 1426 „ Use of 26o 24c aefs. The 23 66c Closes, Full and Half 79 906, 90